Makm$fon^ 
onFarmCrops 




Floyd Michols 




Class_ 



Book 



■H£L 



Copyright N ( 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



Digitized by the Internet Archive 
in 2010 with funding from 
The Library of Congress 



http://www.archive.org/details/makingmoneyonfarOOnich 



MAKING MONEY ON FARM CROPS 



Making Money 
on Farm Crops 



BY 

FLOYD B. NICHOLS 

Agricultural Editor 
THE FRUIT-GROWER AND FARMER 



Published By 

THE FRUIT-GROWER AND FARMER 

St. Joseph, Missouri 

19 13 






5 



Copyrighted 1913 

by 

THE FRUIT-GROWER AND FARMER 

3i. joseph, Missouri 



IT 

©CI.A343411 



PREFACE 



Increased efficiency is the keynote of modern 
farming. The effort toward the highest conserva- 
tion is the goal of the best farmers, and it is a goal 
that is being approached closer every day. With a 
production from the farms of more than nine billion 
dollars in 1912, it is evident that agriculture is an 
industry that is large enough to command the 
energy and ambitions of any man. As in all other 
industries, the attention of the leaders is being given 
to reducing wastes. 

The production of crops, the handling of the 
soils from which these crops grow, and the proper 
disposal of the feeds through the livestock route is 
perhaps the most important series of problems now 
before farmers. The key of the whole situation is to 
produce the maximum of yields with the minimum 
of expense, and this expense includes the important 
item of soil fertility. 



6 Preface 

There has been much progress in the last few 
years in more logical systems of cropping. In this 
time, there has been a great extension in the acre- 
age of legumes, and a wonderful growth in the de- 
mand for lime and phosphorus. More farmers are 
using logical crop rotations than ever before. All 
these things are fine, and are encouraging items in 
the progress of American agriculture. 

As the dark side to the picture, however, atten- 
tion might be drawn to the poor results on many 
farms. There are too many cases of the farmers 
giving the rent on their farms and equipment, and 
the work of themselves and their families in ex- 
change for a mere living, and sometimes a poor one. 
The fault, of course, is largely with the farm own- 
ers. Modern farms are business institutions, and an 
investment in one should pay interest on the capi- 
talization, fair wages for the labor and leave a profit 
besides. Farms will do this, under present condi- 
tions, if they are handled properly. 

What is most needed is for inefficient farmers to 
realize they are not using proper methods, and for 
them to study and adopt systems which the better 
producers have found to be the most profitable. 
Poor farmers are slow about doing this ; slower, in 



Preface 7 

fact, than those in almost any other business. Pro- 
fessional men and merchants are ever ready to adopt 
new methods others have found to be successful. 
More than that, men in other lines hold many con- 
ventions, and pay experts high prices to address 
their meetings ; for they realize the importance of 
progress. Farmers should take a lesson from this 
spirit of efficiency, which is paramount in the busi- 
ness and professional work. 

In the period from 1880 until the close of the 
last century, much of the food grown in the United 
States was produced at a loss. This was made pos- 
sible largely by the great extension of the cultivated 
area of the country, and the vast increase in the pro- 
duction of food. Great cities were built, and vast 
commercial enterprises were started which built up 
the cities, for there was cheap food for the workers. 
These cities now are firmly established as a part of 
American life, and the people are there who must 
be fed. The days of cheap land are past, and with 
them have passed the days of cheap food. The cost 
of living never will decrease, except as the cost of 
distribution is lowered, and it is logical to suppose 
that the producers also will profit from the elimi- 
nation of middlemen. The high-cost-of-living" 
specter, which is the constant companion of the peo- 



8 Preface 

pie of the cities, is the symbol of the opportunity of 
farming. 

With increased prices for food have come high 
prices for land and equipment. While the oppor- 
tunities in farming are much better than ever be- 
fore, it is only the trained men and women, who un- 
derstand How to use the mighty forces of the earth 
for the production of food and clothing, who will 
make a financial success. Efficiency is demanded on 
modern farms. 

This book has been prepared to set forth the 
practical facts of logical crop management without 
all the mass of hazy, complicated technique which 
is often placed around them. The purpose has been 
to show how more money could be made from the 
soil. With increased profits from farming will come 
better homes, schools and churches. It is the hope 
of the author that this book will aid in obtaining 
these. 

FLOYD B. NICHOLS. 



CONTENTS 

Page 
Chapter I — Soils for Crops 15 

Chapter II — The Improvement of Farm Crops 49 

Chapter III — Profitable Alfalfa Production 69 

Chapter IV — How to Grow Clover 105 

Chapter V — Cowpeas As a Rotation Crop Ill 

Chapter VI — Corn-Growing for Profit 157 

Chapter VII— Wheat As a Money Crop 199 

Chapter VIII— Oats On Corn-Belt Farms.... 239 

Chapter IX — The Sorghums .......„..'.. *3'i 



ILLUSTRATIONS 



Page 

A western alfalfa field 18 

Diversified farming in Kansas 19 

Soil-making agencies at work 22 

A farm tractor in operation 24 

Out-cropping of a limestone ledge 26 

Soil cultivation . . . . , 29 

Hereford cattle . . 36 

A poultry prize-winner 41 

Wheat on drained land 44 

In the Shenandoah Valley 47 

Wheat breeding plats 52 

Patrons of husbandry 55 

A prize-winning corn sample 57 

An experimental mill , 60 

An Angus champion 63 

Farm tractor 65 

Jersey cows 72 

Sheep 75 

A farm team 79 

An alfalfa field 81 

A good farm home 85 

Stacking alfalfa 86 

Loading alfalfa hay 87 

Power hay baler 89 

Luncheon 94 

Farm barn 97 

Dairy farm in Pennsylvania 99 

Running the separator 108 

Holstein champion 113 

Clover on limed soil 118 

Pole stacker 1-21 

Loading clover with power 124 

Herefords on clover 128 

Farm improvements pay .138 

A "Toe-Hold" tractor 140 

Careful cultivation pays 144 



12 Illustrations 

Page 

A champion Jersey cow 149 

Holstein cows 152 

A solid-wall silo •. 151 

Shucking corn , . 1G1 

Preparing for the corn contest 163 

Soil formation on steep slopes 165 

Harvesting corn in Kansas 168 

Picking up the corn 171 

Well cultivated corn 175 

December in the corn field 178 

Sentinels of prosperity 179 

Good barns and silcs go together 182 

Shucking shock corn 184 

Shredding corn 186 

Feeding corn to steers 189 

Corn ear worm 193 

In the wheat fields of Ohio 203 

Marketing wheat in the Palouse country 204 

Soft wheat in Kansas 205 

A wheat field in August 209 

The soil was well prepared 214 

A Kansas wheat field 216 

In the wheat fields of Canada 219 

Preparing for wheat in Oregon 221 

A well-capped shock of wheat 225 

Wheat stacks 227 

W T heat in Colorado 230 

Threshing wheat , 233 

Putting wheat in a bin 235 

The start to the "ultimate consumer" 237 

Threshing oats 242 

Seedbed preparation on a big scale 244 

The last load 247 

Harvesting oats 250 

Place oats bundles in long shocks 251 

A self-rake reaper 255 

Oats straw stack 259 

Pligh class kafir 264 

Well made mules 266 

Preparing for kafir 268- 

Missouri mules 271 

A "low down" farm tractor 274 

Filling a silo ' 275 




"BROTHER JONATHAN" 

Trade Mark of The Fruit-Grower and Farmer 

St. Joseph, Missouri 



CHAPTER I. 
SOILS FOR CROPS 



CHAPTER I. " 
SOILS FOR CROPS 

More Legumes Should Be Grown 
What is a Good Rotation? 
When Legumes Will Not Grow 
How Shall Lime Be Applied? 
Small Limestone Crushers 
Classification of Lime Compounds 
Equivalent Weights 
Plants in Relation to Lime 
The Use of Commercial Fertilizers 
Add Phosphorus 

How to Find Out What the Soils Need 
In Regard to Green Manures 
Drainage Helps 

Drainage is Drought Protection 
What Can Be Expected from Drainage? 
The Land Drains Quickly 
Conserve the Barnyard Manure 
The Essentials in Soil Management 



CHAPTER I. 

SOILS FOR CROPS 

A more efficient use of crop rotation and a 
larger acreage of legumes are badly needed in Am- 
erican farming". The soils of this country are not 
worn out, and all that is needed to increase the 
yields to a marked extent is more care in growing 
crops. If the one crop system of soil management 
used on so many farms were changed to a rotation 
adapted to the conditions, the average crop yields 
in the United States' would not compare so dis- 
gracefully with those of Europe. 

More Legumes Should Be Grown 

The air is the cheapest source of nitrogen. This 
essential element for plant production can be ob- 
tained by the growth of legumes much cheaper 
than it can be purchased in the form of commercial 
fertilizers, under most conditions. Of course, there 
are a few conditions — truck farming on land near 
large cities is an example — where it would be 
cheaper to buy bone meal or some other fertilizer 
to supply nitrogen, but these are only minor excep- 
tions. 



:_j Making Money on Farm Crops 

The acreage of the leguminous — the nitrogen 
gathering — crops of the country could profitably be 
doubled. Too much energy and too large an acre- 
age is taken up with growing crops like wheat and 
corn, until many fields have become so exhausted 
that they will not produce profitable returns in 
these crops. Much of this excessive cropping of 
the land with cereal crops has been brought about 
by tenant farming. But there is not the slightest 
excuse for a tenant not growing leguminous crops, 
if the landlord is fair with the contract. Legumes 
can be grown in almost all parts of the United 



■ -.silk :■- ". : : ;>"■': ■ : ' ■ ; «: ;>.. ■ . \f?-;>: , 



In the alfalfa fields of the West. 

States, and their more liberal use would be of great 
importance and profit to both tenants and land- 
lords. Cowpeas, for example, will grow in a very 
large section of the country. This is not a south- 
ern crop at all. There is no reason why tenants 



Soils for Crops 



19 



should not grow this crop. In many cases it will 
return a greater profit than ordinary cereal crops, 
and its beneficial influence on soils is very great. 
Land owners should give tenants every encourage- 
ment to grow this crop. 

What is a Good Rotation? 

Under most conditions, a logical crop rotation 
will have a leguminous crop, such as alfalfa, clover 
or cowpeas ; a crop for which the land must be well 
prepared, such as wheat, and a crop for which the 
land must be well cultivated, as corn and potatoes. 
Just the way these combinations will be made is 
ever the problem of the individual ; for it is obvious 
that conditions such, for instance, as are found on 

m 




Diversified farming in Kansas. 

the sandy soils of New Jersey and those of western 
Kansas require radically different rotation of crops. 



20 Making Money on Farm Crops 

Legumes are mentioned first in this general 
scheme because they should be given first place in 
planning a rotation. This is not only due to their 
beneficial effect on the soil, but also because they 
will produce returns that usually will exceed other 
field crops, if they are cut at the proper time, and 
the feed is well cared for and properly fed to farm 
animals. When you consider the rather high price 
of alfalfa hay in the last few years, you cannot beat 
ifit returns on this crop with wheat or corn, if the 
conditions are favorable for growing alfalfa. And 
if you will feed these crops properly, you can make 
greater returns than if you just sell the hay. 

When Legumes Will Not Grow 

In many sections there are fields that will not, 
under present conditions, grow legumes The soil 
is acid, and under these conditions alfalfa and red 
clover will not do well, and they usually soon will 
die, even if they start to grow. Make the litmus 
test for soil acidity, and be certain about the acid. 
This test is easy to make, and it is fairly accurate. 
This is the way to make it: Buy five cents' worth 
of blue litmus paper at a drug store, and take a ball 
of the soil you desire to test, and press the earth 
around the paper. If the ground is dry, add mois- 
ture. Let the ball stand for half an hour, then 



Soils for Crops 21 

break it open and look at the paper. If it has 
turned red, the soil is acid. Look at it carefully, 
for sometimes the change is faint. More than one 
test should be run, to guard against error. If the 
soil is acid, lime should be applied. 

But lime has other beneficial influences besides 
the correction of soil acidity. For one thing, it 
decomposes potassium compounds, and thus aids in 
making potash more available. This does not mean 
that lime has any power to supply potash ; it merely 
makes available the potash stored in the land. 
Lime also aids the phosphorous compounds. Solu- 
ble phosphorus combines with other compounds 
readily, iron for example, and forms a compound 
that is insoluble, and is rejected by plants. Lime, 
however, combines with phosphorus better than 
iron, and forms compounds that are soluble, and 
may be used by plants. Lime also will aid in the 
decomposition of organic matter. Now it is organic 
matter that furnishes the principal source of nitro- 
gen and this supply must be reduced to furnish 
available nitrogen. 

The flocculation of the soil, which is the forcing 
apart of the soil particles, is greatly aided by an 
application of lime. This is one of the most im- 
portant effects of the application of this element. 



22 



Making Money on Farm Crops 



One good test for the need of lime on land is 
the way red clover grows. If you, can produce 
good yields of this crop, it is practically certain the 





Soil-making agencies at work. 

soil does not need lime. If the crops are poor and 
sickly, it is probable an application of lime would 
pay. 



Soils for Crops 23 

How Shall Lime Be Applied? 

Ground limestone is the best form in which to 
apply lime, in most sections. Lime crushers that 
are small and cheap now may be purchased, and 
they are being introduced in many sections, to fur- 
nish ground limestone to the surrounding country. 
Larger plants — the one at the southern Illinois pen- 
itentiary is an example — have been built that are 
shipping many thousand tons of ground limestone 
a year. The increase in the sales of this material 
from the penitentiary plant is a good example of 
the extension in the use of limestone in other sec- 
tions. The sales from this plant have been : 

In 1906 122 tons 

In 1907. 1,520 tons 

In 1908 2,428 tons 

In 1909 .4,846 tons 

In 1910 14,135 tons 

In addition, there are more than a dozen private 
companies furnishing ground limestone to Illinois 
farmers. 

In speaking of the use of limestone on Illinois 
soils, Dr. Hopkins said : "The amount of limestone 
used in soil improvement in this state should rap- 
idly increase until it reaches more than a hundred 
times the present demand, for the reason that lime- 



24 Making Money on Farm Crops 

stone is one of the necessary materials that must 
always be supplied for the highest improvement 
and permanent maintenance of Illinois soils, and 
also because at reasonable prices for limestone and 



., - • 



'.; : -<- 




[**•> ' _ '■■""■... ' 



Farm tractors cheapen the cost of production. Deep plowing 
may he clone at just the time it is needed: 

farm produce, it can be used with sufficient profit 
to justify its application. Even the landowner who 
receives only one-half of the crops produced can 
afford to pay for the limestone when needed, and 
a share of the increased crops will likewise well 
pay the tenant for the hauling and spreading." 

Small Limestone Crushers 

In the judgment of the author, there will be a 
big extension of the use of small plants for crush- 



Soils for Crops 25 

ing limestone in the future. Small plants reduce 
freight charg'es ; usually they eliminate raiiroad 
freights. In putting in a plant of this kind, always 
have a sample of the rock you expect to grind 
analyzed before you buy the machinery. Lime- 
stone varies greatly in composition, owing to the 
different percentages of foreign matter. Even two 
ledges in the same community might vary greatly, 
so be certain of the purity. Send a sample of the 
rock to the department of chemistry of your state 
agricultural college. 

The most extensive experiments in this coun- 
try on the use of different forms of lime on soils 
have been made at the Pennsylvania Experiment 
Station, and the results there were in favor of 
ground limestone. Quicklime tends to destroy the 
organic matter of the soil to a much greater extent 
than does ground limestone. So apply the ground 
material if the prices admit. 

Classification of Lime Compounds 

Ground Limestone. — The word lime, as ordi- 
narily used, refers to burned lime or calcium oxide, 
but it is very often used to designate any form of 
lime without regard to its composition. Limestone 
in its natural state consists of lime or calcium oxide 
in combination with carbon dioxide, and is known 



26 



Making Money on Farm Crops 



as carbonate of lime. It usually contains more or 
less of magnesium carbonate, together with some 
iron, aluminum and sand. It was originally sup- 
posed that magnesium limestone was injurious, 



|, 





mmm^Mms. 



The out-cropping - of a limerock ledge. Ground limestone may be 
cheaply produced here. 

especially if used on the same soil for several years, 
but later researches have proved this belief is un- 
true, and that it is equally valuable with pure cal- 
cium limestone, for use on soils. Good limestone 
should contain at least 90 per cent calcium and 
magnesium carbonate. 

The availability of ground limestone depends 
on its fineness. It should all pass through a sieve 



Soils for Crops 27 

of 80 meshes to the inch. Material coarser than 
this may remain in the soil for several seasons 
before becoming- available. This form of lime may 
be applied to the soil in almost any quantity with- 
out danger, although it is generally recommended 
at the rate of 3,000 pounds an acre and sometimes 
more. 

Burned Lime. — This is also known as "stone 
lime," "lump lime," "quicklime" and "caustic 
lime." It is produced from raw limerock by burn- 
ing. One hundred pounds of limestone will pro- 
duce 56 pounds of burned lime. This is the most 
active form of lime, and may be used at the rate 
of 1,000 to 1,200 pounds an acre. Much larger 
quantities are sometimes used, but the above 
amounts should be sufficient in most cases. 

This form of lime is usually put upon the mar- 
kets in lumps, and before being applied to the soil 
it must be reduced to powder. This is conven- 
iently done by placing the lime in small piles about 
the field, and covering it with three or four inches 
of moist soil. The lime will absorb the moisture 
from the soil, and gradually break down into a fine 
powder, when it may be spread with a shovel. 
Ground burned lime may be purchased at a slightly 
advanced price. 



28 Making Money on Farm Crops 

Hydrated Lime. — When burned lime is treated 
with water or steam it enters into combination 
with the water and forms what is chemically 
termed calcium hydrate or hydrated lime. This 
form, like burned lime, is caustic, but it is always 
in the powder form, and may be readily applied to 
the soil. Fifty-six pounds of burned lime are equiv- 
alent to- 7-i pounds of hydrated lime. This form of 
lime is also known as slaked (slacked) lime. 

Air-Slaked Lime — When burned lime is ex- 
posed to the action of the air for any considerable 
length of time, it gradually takes up moisture and 
carbon dioxide, and changes to the hydrate and car- 
bonate forms. If exposed for a sufficiently long 
time, it will all change to the carbonate form or 
the state in which it was before burning. Its value 
lies somewhere between that of hydrated lime and 
ground limestone. 

Equivalent Weights 

The different lime forms have different amounts 
of calcium present. When the compounds are free 
from mixtures, the equivalent weights are shown in 
the following table. Usually they are not quite 



Soils for Crops 



29 



pure, but they generally are not very much adul- 
terated. 

1,000 pounds of burned lime is equivalent to : 

1,351 pounds hydrated lime. 

1,786 pounds ground limestone or marl. 

1,351 to 1,786 pounds air-slaked lime. 

About 3,000 pounds hardwood ashes. 

Plants in Relation to Lime 

After several years of careful experimenting 
upon the use of lime on various soils and with 
many crops, Dr. II. J. Wheeler, of the Rhode Island 




Proper tillage is essential for the best results on all soils. 



30 



Making Money on Farm Crops 



Experiment Station, has made a classification of 
plants according to their action with reference to 
lime. 

The following table is based on Wheeler's classi- 
fication : 



Plants benefited by 


Plants indifferent 


Plants injured by 


lime. 


to lime. 


lime. 


Beans 


Corn 


Watermelon 


Beets 


Millet . 


Blue Lupine 


Celery- 


Golden Rye 


Sheep Sorrel 


Onions 


Potatoes 




Cabbage 


Carrots 




Pea 


Red Top Grass 




Alfalfa 






Clover 






Barley- 






Wheat 






Oats 






Timothy 






Kentucky Blue 






Grass 






Seed Fruits 






Stone Fruits 







The Use of Commercial Fertilizers 

Frequently farmers are advised, usually by 
those interested in the sale of the material or by 
those who have not made a careful study of soil 
conditions, to apply a complete fertilizer, contain- 
ing considerable amounts of the three elements apt 
to 1 be exhausted in soils — nitrogen, potassium and 
phosphorus. A very common complete fertilizer is 



Soils for Crops 31 

one having a composition known as 2-8-2, which 
means it contains 2 per cent ammonia, 8 per cent 
phosphoric acid and 2 per cent potash. Fertilizer 
manufacturers usually state the percentages of fer- 
tilizing elements in this way. The amounts of 
actual fertilizing elements sound larger in these 
forms than when stated as nitrogen, phosphorus 
and potassium. 

A ton of this material contains 33 pounds of 
nitrogen, 80 pounds of phosphorus and 33 pounds 
of potassium. Such a fertilizer usually is sold at 
retail for from $20 to $25 a ton, and sometimes 
higher. A 50-bushel crop of corn takes from an 
acre 75 pounds of nitrogen, 12 of phosphorus and 
36 of potassium ; and other grain crops have simi- 
lar plant food requirements. Such a fertilizer 
would have to be applied at the rate of more than 
two tons an acre to supply the nitrogen, and at the 
rate of more than a ton to add the potassium. 
When the value of the yields of crops are consid- 
ered, it may readily be seen that there is not much 
profit in such an investment. 

Few soils are deficient in all plant food ele- 
ments. If they are, they are very poor soils. Over 
every acre of land there is an inexhaustable sup- 
ply of nitrogen that merely is waiting the growing 
of leguminous crops to become available fo.r the use 



32 Making Money on Farm Crops 

of all crops. Use this supply. Nitrogen is the most 
expensive form of commercial fertilizer, and it can 
be obtained free if the proper crops are grown. 

And then in regard to the potassium content of 
soils : There are not many soils in the United 
States where the potassium content needs any ad- 
dition, or where such applications w T ould pay. It 
is true, however, that there are such lands, but 
they usually are not deficient in both nitrogen and 
phosphorus, too. In most of the land in the north- 
central states, the soil contains, to the depth the 
land is plowed, 35,000 pounds of potassium, and 
deeper the soil contains similar amounts that will 
be brought to the surface, as it is needed, by the 
growth of deep-rooted crops, as alfalfa, and also 
by the gradual lowering of land levels. Muck soils 
frequently need potassium and phosphorus, but 
never nitrogen, so a complete fertilizer would not 
pay. 

Add Phosphorus 

There should be a great extension in the use of 
phosphorus on soils in the United States, and much 
of the extension in the use of commercial fertili- 
zers in the future will be along this line. From 
the older soils of the East on through the fertile 
prairie lands of the Mississippi valley to the far 



Soils for Crops 33 

West, there are lands that would be improved 
markedly by applications of this material. The 
supply on many soils is low. If you believe this 
element should be added to your soils, buy a small 
quantity, apply it to the land, and note the result 
in crop yields that you get. Probably the best way 
to sum up the phosphorus proposition is to quote 
from a bulletin of the Indiana Experiment Station. 
In a bulletin of this station on "Co-operative 
Fertilizer Tests on Clay and Loam Soils" these 
statements may be found: "Phosphoric acid and 
potash give a greater profit, for a dollar invested 
in fertilizer, than complete fertilizer, on both corn 
and wheat. In nearly all experiments with all 
crops on clay and loam soils, phosphoric acid was 
found to be the most effective of the fertilizing 
elements." 

How to Find Out What the Soils Need 

Never apply a complete commercial fertilizer 
unless you are certain the land is deficient in the 
three elements contained ; and never use fertilizer 
of any kind until you are sure the soil needs it. 
Here is a good way to find out the fertilizer re- 
quirements of land : Lay out a number of experi- 
mental plats on a typical soil uniform in appear- 
ance throughout, each plat one rod wide and eight 



34 Making Money on Farm Crops 

rods long, that is, one-twentieth of an acre. Ap- 
ply the different fertilizers carefully, and work 
them well into the soil. 

8 RODS 



1 rod 



1 rod 



1 rod 



1 rod 



1 rod 



1 rod 



1 rod 



15 


pounds 


Nitrate of Soda 


30 


pounds 


Superphosphate 


15 


pounds 


Sulphate of Potash 


15 
15 


pounds 
pounds 


Nitrate of Soda 
Sulphate of Potash 


15 
30 


pounds 

pounds 


Nitrate of Soda 
Superphosphate 


30 
15 


pounds 
pounds 


Superphosphate 
Sulphate of Potash 


15 
30 
15 


pounds 
pounds 
pounds 


Nitrate of Soda 
Superphosphate 
Sulphate of Potash 



Soils for Crops 35 

A few check plats, unfertilized, should also be 
laid out to allow proper comparison. All the plats 
must otherwise be treated exactly alike in the way 
of sowing and cultivation. Careful comparison of 
the crop results will reveal the plant-food require- 
ments of the soil. 

Apply the fertilizers broadcast, and harrow the 
land lengthwise, to avoid mixing the materials. 
The land for all these plats must be the same, in 
order to make the test of value. This test should 
be used where there is doubt as to just what the 
soil needs, and there is on most farms. 

Where such tests have been made, it usually 
has been found that there is not a need for more 
than one or two of the elements, as a rule. You 
can take this as an axiom to follow in the applica- 
tion of commercial fertilizers : There are few 
fields where an application of a complete fertilizer 
will pay, and before commercial fertilizers of any 
kind are added, the soil types should be studied 
thoroughly, so you may know just what you are 
doing. 

There is no disposition on the part of the au- 
thor to discourage the intelligent use of commer- 
cial fertilizers. Not at all. On the contrary, it 
would be well if there was a great extension in 
their use. But there is a great deal of money 



36 



Making Money on Farm Crops 



wasted every year by the addition of expensive 
elements that do not increase crop yields. A great 
many of the soils in the fertile corn sections of the 
West could profitably have phosphorus added to 
them, while the addition of the other two elements 
would not pay, in most cases. Study the plant 
food deficiencies of your soils, and know just what 
you are applying when you add fertilizers. 

What is most disgraceful, however, is to see 
the vast sums that are being spent by farmers in 
grain sections for fertilizers that contain nitrogen. 




Grow protein crops, and feed them to high-grade animals. 



This, in most cases, is "bonehead" farming of the 
worst type. The Creator put the nitrogen in the 
air to be used, and there is no use in a farmer wast- 



Soils for Crops 37 

ing his profits on buying it when he can get all of 
this element he needs by growing legumes. Many 
times, farmers spend good money for commercial 
nitrogen and also for protein feeds, when both can 
be obtained by growing a leguminous crop. 

In Regard to Green Manures 

Green manure crops frequently can be used to 
good advantage, for the betterment of soil condi- 
tions. There is one thing that should be carefully 
considered, however, when one is growing these 
crops, and this is that when some crops, as cane', 
are plowed under, there is a great formation of 
acid, and if there is not a good supply of lime in 
the soil, the field may become acid. The contin- 
ued growing of green manure crops, in some sec- 
tions, has brought on just this condition. Of course, 
this can be overcome by the use of lime. 

Cowpeas is one of the best green manure crops, 
and there is not so great a formation of acid as 
there is with many crops. When this fact is con- 
sidered, and also that the crop adds an abundance 
of nitrogen to the land, it may be seen that it 
should be used for such purposes when possible. 
One of the principal objections to the use of this 
crop, usually, is the high cost of the seed. 

Green manure crops frequently can be worked 



38 Making Money on Farm Crops 

in between ether crops, without any loss of rent 
on the land, for it would not produce a crop any- 
way. Take, for example, the growing" of a crop of 
cowpeas after wheat, where the field is not to be 
put into wheat again : The crop may be planted 
after the wheat has been cut, and in most sections 
it still will have time to mature a crop. 

The increase in yield of wheat due to the cow- 
peas is generally given as from three to five bush- 
els an acre. At the Missouri Experiment Station, 
an increase in yield of 63 per cent with oats and 
49 per cent with wheat following cowpeas as a 
catch-crop was obtained. The Arkansas Experi- 
ment Station reports, as an average of four years' 
test with wheat, an increase in yield of 25 per cent 
from plowing under cowpea stubble in the fall, 39 
per cent from plowing under cowpea vines, and 42 
per cent when cowpeas were grown every year as 
a catch-crop between the wheat crops, only the 
stubble of the peas being plowed under. 

At the Kansas Station cowpeas were sown as a 
catch-crop between wheat crops for five years, 
plowing under the entire growth of peas about the 
middle of September, two or three weeks before 
seeding to wheat. The cowpeas were sown every 
year soon after wheat harvest, in close drills, at 
the rate of about one bushel of peas an acre. The 



Soils for Crops 39 

field was usually double-disked ahead of the drill. 
Both plots were plowed on the same date and 
given similar preparation before seeding. The 
field used for this work was upland soil low in fer- 
tility. The yields for five years were : 

YIELD AN ACRE OF WHEAT. 

Treatment. 1904. 1905. 190G. 1907. 1908. Av. 

Wheat continuously ...13.40 12.02 13.41 11.79 11.08 12.34 
Wheat continuously, 

with cowpeas as 

catch crop 14.49 16.53 15.54 16.37 20.13 16.61 

Every season the catch-crop of cowpeas gave an 
increased yield of wheat, and the effect was accum- 
ulative, the increase in yield being gradual from 
year to year. The first year of the trial there was 
a difference of only one bushel in favor of the cow- 
pea rotation, while after five years the plot which 
received the green manuring produced nine bushels 
more wheat to the acre, the average difference be- 
ing four and one-third bushels an acre in favor of 
planting cowpeas as a catch-crop between crops of 
wheat. Under average farm conditions it will not 
be possible to get cowpeas grown as a catch-crop 
between two wheat crops, because there is not 
time, but frequently it will be possible to plant it 
where wheat is not to be resown. This table 
shows the value of this use of cowpeas. 



40 Making Money on Farm Crops 

Drainage Helps 

Fortunate indeed are farmers in the humid sec- 
tions who do not have some land too wet for the 
best crop production. Wet spots are an aggrava- 
tion to handle, for they delay the cultivation of the 
rest of the field. Then there are some fields 
where it will pay to underdrain the whole field. 
Before the perfection of tile drains, the handling of 
these fields often was a serious problem, and 
usually an elaborate system of ditches was con- 
structed that took up a great deal of room. They 
were in the way and were inefficient. There is no 
excuse for that in this day of tile drains. 

Usually the wet land that now is not producing 
good crops is the most fertile on the farm. In 
many cases, these wet spots have received the wash 
from the higher levels, and if the surplus water 
were removed the fields would produce crops far 
superior to average yields. Drain these swales, 
and give the crops a chance. 

Drainage is Drought Protection 

If your soil is tile drained, the crops will stand 
drought better than if it is not drained. While the 
reasons for this are plain enough, th'is fact is not 
well understood by the farmers of the country. 



Soils for Crops 



41 



The reasons are that the pnysical condition of the 
land is improved by drainage, the land is more mel- 
low and loose, air gets in the soil better, and 




High quality poultry pays. 

mainly the capillary water is more freely intro- 
duced, and is more available for the plant. It is 
the capillary water that is of importance in the de- 
velopment of the plant. Stagnant water is not, for 
the plants can not use it. 



42 Making Money on Farm Crops 

Drainage will deepen the soil, and allow it to 
warm more rapidly in the spring. It lengthens the 
growing season. It prevents soil washing, and 
makes a better home for the roots. And, most im : 
portant, it allows the production of larger crops, as 
it will pay big in dollars and cents, and that is one 
of the main things we desire from land. 

Use round tile drains. There are many com- 
panies making clay tiles, and usually farmers will 
find it is about as cheap, after the labor cost is con- 
sidered, to buy these tiles as it is to make cement 
tiles on the farm, which is now being done in many 
localities. Cement tiles can be made that are of 
good quality and will produce good results, but the 
labor increases the cost of this type of drain so it 
is about the same as clay tile, under most condi- 
tions. When cement is low in price, the cement 
tiles may be materially cheaper than clay tiles. 

The distance between the tiles and the depth 
will vary with the slope, amount of water to be re- 
moved, the nature of the soil, and just how quickly 
the water is to be removed. In many cases, all 
that is needed in draining wet spots in fields is the 
placing of a string of tile through the spot, and 
perhaps the use of a few short laterals. There are 
some fields where it will pay to put in an elabor- 



Soils for Crops 43 

ate system of mains and laterals, and cover the 
whole field. 

One mistake many farmers make when they 
start into tile drainage is the use of tiles that are 
too small. No matter how well the tiles are laid, 
they may get out of line, and where one part sinks 
out of line, the part that is low will fill up with 
sediment, and thus the size of the drain will be re- 
duced. Frequently a drain gets stopped up in just 
this way, and the whole drainage system is ruined. 
Never use tiles less than four inches in diameter, 
even for laterals. 

What Can Be Expected From Drainage 

As an example of the results one can expect 
from tile drainage, eight acres of land on the farm 
of Mont Van Buskirk, in Anderson county, Kan- 
sas, might be mentioned. This land was tile drained 
in 1911, and produced its first crop in 1912. The 
crop was corn, and the yield was 60 bushels an 
acre. The land never had produced a crop before. 
The first crop, valuing corn at 50 cents a bushel, 
paid for raising the corn, for laying the tile, and 
left a good profit besides. 

The eight acres produced 480 bushels of corn, 
which is worth $240. The cost of the drainage sys- 
tem was $125, leaving $115 to pay for producing 



44 



Making Money on Farm Crops 



the corn, and for profit. Then the value of the land 
has been increased to more than $100 an acre. 

This drained land is a low swale typical of thou- 
sands of acres in eastern Kansas, and in many sec- 




Wheat on drained land in Missouri. 

tions elsewhere. A shallow ditch ran through the 
middle, and for several rods on each side water 
stood much of the year. The only growth was 
willows, some water grass and weeds. The field 
was too wet for pasture. The land never had pro- 
duced anything. 

This field was not a difficult engineering propo- 
sition at all. Through the middle of the wet land, 
near where the shallow ditch had been, a six-inch 
line of tile was placed. On either side, on slightly 
higher land, was placed a line of four-inch tiles. 
One of these smaller lines was 55 rods long, the 
other 14 rods. Two short, four-inch laterals were 
used, in addition. The fall was fairly good, so the 



Soils for Crops 45 

leveling was an easy proposition. This usually is 
the case, when draining low, wet swales. 

The tiles were placed three feet deep. The cost 
of digging the ditches was 35 cents a rod. The 
work was done by contract, and this included the 
cost of laying the tiles, and filling the ditches after 
the tiles were laid. 

The main ditch has an intake made of rock and 
gravel, which covers the tiles at the upper end, to 
care for the water that comes from farms above. 
The outlet is protected by rods and wire netting 
to keep out mice and other small animals that 
might enter when no water was flowing in the 
drain. 

The system was constructed in the summer of 
1911, too late to put in a crop. Most of the land 
was covered with willows, which caused some 
trouble when the land was plowed. The largest 
were grubbed. The compact roots of the willows 
forced the runners of the corn planter out of the 
ground some places, and this reduced the percen- 
tage of stand materially. The land was well culti- 
vated, so most of the willows were killed, and they 
will not cause any trouble next year. 

This land has received the wash from the sur- 
rounding hills, and the soil is very deep. In most 



46 Making Money on Farm Crops 

places, the soil was the same at the bottom of the 
tile ditches as it is at the top. This is typical of 
wet spots in that section. 

The Land Drains Quickly 

In speaking of the way the field dries, after a 
rain, Mr. Van Buskirk said: "The low, tile drained 
portion of the field can be cultivated sooner than 
higher portions where the tiling has not been 
placed. The reason is obvious. The drainage from 
the low land is almost perfect through the tiles, 
and it flows out rapidly. On the higher land, it 
must seep away by percolation through the soil, 
and drainage is slower." 

Mr. Van Buskirk has used both clay and ce- 
ment tiles. He has a machine for making cement 
tiles that cost $35, and in speaking of the operation 
of it, he said: "For cement tiles 12 inches long 
and six inches in diameter, the cost of the material 
was two cents each. This was for' tiles made last 
winter, when cement was 20 cents a sack, which is 
very low. The cost of four-inch tiles was one cent 
each. We used one part of cement to four parts 
of sand. About 200 tiles of either kind can be 
made with this machine in a day. I do not think 
there is much to be saved by making cement tiles, 
over the cost of clay tiles, after the labor is consid- 



Soils for Crops 



47 



ered. These prices I have quoted merely are the 
cost of the sand and cement. But when a farmer 
desires to do the work himself and to have some 
employment at odd times, it may pay him to make 
his tiles. I believe well-constructed cement tiles 
are the equal of clay tiles." 

Cement tiles are good, if they are made prop- 
erly, and they will last well. Whether it will pay 
to make them is merely a business proposition to 
be determined after the prices of the labor and ma- 
terial for the cement tiles, and the cost of the clay 
tiles is known. 

Conserve the Barnyard Manure 

A reform in handling the manure produced on 
farms is badly needed. Much of the fertilizing 




In the Shenandoah Valley of Virginia, 



48 Making Money on Farm Crops 

value frequently is lost before it gets to the land. 
There is no reason for a great deal of elaborate 
detail in the way this material is handled. Get the 
manure to the soil just as soon as you can after it 
is produced, and use a spreader so it will be ap- 
plied in the cheapest and best way. That is about 
ail there is to it. Of course, you should remember 
that when manure heats and leaches, it loses about 
all its fertilizing value, and that more good can be 
obtained by spreading the manure thin, for a 
greater acreage will be benefited. 

The Essentials in Soil Management 

If you get some knowledge concerning the 
mighty forces that are making- and changing the 
soils of the world, and how men can aid these 
forces, and then apply some good, hard common- 
sense to the proposition, you should be able to get 
good results from your land. The main essentials 
are these : Use a rotation that has a prominent 
leguminous crop, add essential elements, if the soil 
needs them, and then cultivate the land properly. 
The most important change that is needed is the 
introduction of good crop rotations — and do not 
forget the legumes. 



CHAPTER II. 
THE IMPROVEMENT OF FARM CROPS 



CHAPTER II. 
THE IMPROVEMENT OF FARM CROPS 

Crop Breeding 

Some Results in Plant Breeding 

Select Seed Corn in the Field 

Breeding Wheat for Profit 

Opportunities in Seed Wheat Production 

Breeding Alfalfa 

In Regard to Treating Seed 

Use a Fanning Mill 



CHAPTER II. 

THE IMPROVEMENT OF FARM CROPS 

All cultivated crops have been improved from 
their wild, original state. Crops have been modi- 
fied by the selection of suitable plants which ap- 
proached the type desired. Farmers do not, as a 
rule, give so much attention to crop improvement 
as they should. There is too much crib selection 
of seed corn, and too much selection with a scoop- 
shovel for wheat and oats. That "like begets like" 
is one of the oldest of breeding laws, and one of 
the most fundamental. 

Plants are the product of two forces,- heredity 
and environment. Heredity is the characteristics 
the plant has inherited from past generations. Both 
are important, but heredity has an importance that 
is not always considered, which is that it acts 
without expense. It costs money and work to 
produce the best environment for the plants to live 
in ; to plow, to disk, to cultivate, to hoe, all these 
take energy, and if the forces of heredity are not 
acting in a favorable way, the work may not be 
profitable. Scrub corn takes up the land just the 
same as that which has quality. You must do as 



52 



Making Money on Farm Crops 



much work to cultivate it. And in the fall, it is 
found that the man who has used seed that has 
been developed by generations of intelligent selecr. 
tion is the one who makes the greatest profit on 
the season's work. 

The breeding of farm crops along scientific 
lines is a comparatively recent thing. Before then, 
there had been selection that accomplished great 
good, and remarkable progress, but results have 
come much faster in recent years. 

Crop Breeding 

The principal things that delayed the breeding 
of farm crops after great progress had been made 
with farm animals was that the sex in plants was 



^^^^^py$| 




Breeding plats, Kansas Experiment Station, where new races of 
wheat are produced. 

not well understood, and there was a great diffi- 
culty in controlling the pollen. The control of pol- 
len is one of the greatest problems of plant breed- 



Improvement of Farm Crops 53 

ers. With animals, the male may be tied up and 
thus kept confined, and while it is true the pollen 
of plants may be controlled, it is only at the price 
of great labor and patience. Plant breeders, how- 
ever, have the advantage in that they can work 
with far greater numbers of individuals than breed- 
ers of animals. 

In the improvement of plants, the first thing is 
to get the plant to produce variations. After this. 
the problem is to select the forms that are the 
most desirable for the purpose the breeder has in 
view, and then to test these plants to see whether 
they will reproduce their kind. One of the hard- 
est things is the selection of types to be kept. 

The scientific principles that make up the 
science of plant breeding are so varied and com- 
plex that they have a literature of their own. Here, 
however, we are interested in what a farmer who 
does not wish to give the time to master all these 
principles can do to get money-making results. 
One does not have to follow Mendel's law through 
all the hazy science and near-science that has been 
hung upon it to get results in improving crops. 

Some Results in Plant Breeding, 

The record of what some breeders of farm crops 
have done to get the results they have obtained is 



54 Making Money on Farm Crops 

of importance in showing what can be done in 
working with the types we have today. Take, for 
example, the history of the Learning variety of 
corn. This variety was originated by J. S. Learn- 
ing of Hamilton County, Ohio, from scrub corn 
growing in that community. He decided what the 
ideal type should be, and he began a selection 
toward this type in 1826. He kept up the selection 
for 56 years, and his son continued the work. His 
method of selection was to go into the field as the 
earliest husks began to show signs of ripening, 
and select ears from stalks that tapered from butt 
to tassel ; on which the ears were filled out well 
over the points, with straight rows of kernels, and 
which ripened in from 100 to 110 days. The Learn- 
ing corn has been somewhat modified by later 
breeders, but the general type still is the same. 

Reid's Yellow Dent Corn was originated by 
James L. Reid, of Tazewell County, 111. This type 
offers one of the best examples of corn that was 
selected in an intelligent manner, for it was graded 
up from a variety with small ears to the great va- 
riety that it is today. Robert Reid brought from 
Brown County, Ohio, to Illinois, in 18-46, a variety 
known at that time as the Gorden Hopkins' corn. 
It was a small, reddish variety. There was a fair 
crop grown the first year, but the stand the second 



Improvement of Farm Crops 



55 



year was poor. The missing- hills were replanted 
with the seed of the Little Yellow corn, which was 
grown in that community. The seed has not been 
mixed since then, and the type in this variety is 
well fixed. 

The Boone County White was originated by 
James Riley, Boone County, Indiana. He was 




Patrons of husbandry. 

growing" a large, coarse type known as the White 
Mastodon, in 1876, -and he began a selection at that 
time. The corn has not been mixed since then, and 
the results he has obtained have been by selection. 
Some remarkable results were obtained at the 
Illinois Experiment Station in breeding corn to in- 
crease and decrease both the oil and protein con- 



56 Making Money on Farm Crops 

tent. Marked results were obtained. The experi- 
ment showed clearly that corn could be changed 
remarkably by intelligent selection toward some 
desired type. 

In the breeding of corn, it is the selection of 
seed that farmers are mainly interested in. The 
main secret of intelligent selection of seed corn is 
to know what you wish to select. One of the prin- 
cipal troubles that is causing poor selection of corn 
is that farmers do not know good seed, and in 
many cases when they have a typ.e fixed in their 
minds, ic is a wrong type. After you determine on 
the corn you wish to grow, get a score card for 
this corn, and find out just how the best breeders 
are selecting their seed. Then, after you get this 
ideal firmly fixed in your mind, select your corn 
to conform to this standard as nearly as possible. 

Select Seed Corn in the Field 

Of course, field selection should be the rule. 
There is no excuse for crib selection, for there is 
very little work connected with field selection of 
the seed corn needed to plant the acreage on the 
average farm. In order to make an intelligent se- 
lection of an ear that will be used for seed the fol- 
lowing year, it is necessary to know the stalk the 
ear grew on. Go into the fields some time before 



58 Making Money on Farm Crops 

shucking time, take a sack, and select the corn. Ot 
course, you can do a good job of selection when 
you are shucking the corn, too, but the trouble is 
it takes more time, considering the time that you 
will spend glancing at the ears, than it does to 
select it earlier and have it done with, and it also 
makes it rather late, so it may not be possible to 
reduce the moisture content of the ears to a proper 
point for freezing weather. 

The Department of Agriculture tested the com- 
parative productiveness of ears selected from good 
yielding stalks in comparison with good ears of the 
same variety taken from a crib. The field-selected 
ears produced 16 bushels more an acre, or 20 per 
cent more than the crib-selected ears. 

It is essential to care for seed properly, as this 
test shows. Four bushels of corn were harvested 
and divided into two equal parts. One part was 
well dried and kept dry during the winter in a 
seed house, and the other was kept in an ordinary 
corncrib. In the spring, the well-preserved seed 
was put in one box of a two-row corn planter and 
the cribbed seed in the other planter box. On rich 
bottom land planted in this manner the well-pre- 
served seed produced 18 bushels more an acre, or 
27 per cent more than the cribbed seed ; while on 
poor upland the well-preserved seed produced 



Improvement of Farm Crops 59 

seven bushels more an acre, or 12 per cent more 
than the cribbed seed. The cribbed seed germin- 
ated as well as the well-preserved seed, but the re- 
sulting plants were less thrifty and less productive. 

Breeding Wheat For Profit 

The improvements that have been made in the 
wheats are an inspiration to plant breeders. Wheat 
originated in central Asia about the time man did, 
but the types that were known then were far dif- 
ferent to the ones of today. The kernels were 
small, and the yields were not high. There are 
several divisions of economic wheats in addition to 
the bread wheats, such as macaroni, dwarf and 
poulard, but bread wheats are by far the most im- 
portant. Wheat tends to readily adapt itself to 
changes in environment, and there have been many 
types developed. Most botanical writers believe 
that from 900 to 1,000 is a conservative estimate of 
the number of named varieties now growing in the 
world. Of course, many of these are similar. 

The experiment stations have done some fine 
work in breeding wheats, to increase the yield and 
the milling qualities. Some splendid work has 
been done, and is being done by the Kansas Ex- 
periment Station, where several departments are 
working together to produce high quality varieties. 



60 



Making Money on Farm Crops 



A department of milling industry has been estab- 
lished, and the milling value of the wheats are 
tested. It is no secret that there is a great varia- 



t^kS^mzu 







■g . 

yap 

ill M'mSmrrm m 



Wm 



':'•,•:;:•?' : " 




The experimental mill used by the department of milling' 
industry at the Kansas Agricultural College. Here the secrets of 
the bread values of wheats are discovered. 

tion in the milling qualities of wheats grown in a 
given section, and under conditions that are simi- 
lar. Millers cannot make the difference in price 
with these wheats that should be made. 

One of the worst things is a mixing of types in 
wheat. If a wheat that is supposed to be hard con- 
tains a considerable mixture of soft wheat it does 
not have so high a milling value as if it were pure. 



Improvement of Farm Crops 61 

This would not be so bad if the percentage of mix- 
ture were constant, but it tends to vary in lots 
grown by different farmers. The millers often are 
accused of unjust discrimination against certain 
wheats, and of being over-particular, but it is no 
wonder, when one considers the mixed and poor 
lots of grain they get in the course of a year. 

The wheats grown in the United States were 
originated both in this country and in Europe. The 
Fife wheat, for example, was originated by James 
Fife, of Ontario, Canada. Some seed wheat was 
obtained from a friend in Scotland in the spring, 
and not knowing whether it was a spring or a win- 
ter variety, he planted only part of the seed. The 
variety was a winter wheat, and but three heads 
ripened. These few grains were planted the next 
year, and they proved to be almost free from rust, 
in a season when most of the other wheat in that 
section rusted badly. The seed that resulted from 
the rust free plants then was carefully saved. This 
is the beginning of Fife wheat. 

Opportunities in Seed Wheat Production 

The hard types have perhaps been bred for 
purity with greater care than have soft wheats, 
and they are not so badly mixed. The soft wheat 
field that does not contain at least one or two per 



62 Making Money on Farm Crops 

cent of mixture is rare. There is an opportunity 
before the growers of soft wheat, which they 
should not neglect, to breed up some good, pure 
races of soft wheat. Under the conditions such as 
are found in the soft wheat sections of Missouri 
and Kansas, the hard wheat mixtures in soft wheat 
seem to stand the excessively hard winters much 
better than do the soft types, and this means their 
proportion tends to increase. This aids in increas- 
ing the demand for seed, and there is an oppor- 
tunity to produce this seed at good prices. 

The way to breed out undesirable types in 
wheat is this : Go into your fields next summer, 
after the wheat is. headed and before it is cut, and 
cull out the foreign types you see. That is a fine 
time to do this work, or to inspect wheat for most 
purposes. You can tell at that time just what you 
have. You should remove the foreign types from 
enough of the field so you will have seed, but if 
this is too great a task, remove enough to start a 
good-sized seed-plat. Then, the next year, the for- 
eign types can be eliminated from this plat, and if 
this is kept up, the mixtures should gradually dis- 
appear, and the wheat will become pure. 

The methods that have been outlined for wheat 
and corn are well adapted to farm conditions. Of 
course, the professional plant breeder has the time 



Improvement of Farm Crops 



G3 



and opportunity to use methods that are more 
technical and exact, but there is no time on the 
average farm for the employing of elaborate head- 
row methods. 

Breeding Alfalfa 
Some fine results are being obtained in breed- 
ing alfalfa. The average stand of alfalfa contains 
many types, and the ones that are upright are the 




It is essential that high-class animals be grown along with good 
crops, if the greatest returns are to be obtained. 

ones especially adapted for hay. The botanical 
department of the Kansas Agricultural College has 
been breeding these so they could obtain races in 
which all the plants had the upright habit of 
growth, and they are having good success. 



64 Making Money on Farm Crops 

On through all the field of plant life, it is evi- 
dent what is needed mostly is the intelligent care 
in selection by average farmers. They are produc- 
ing the crops of the country. If the experiment 
station men are the only ones who pay attention 
to producing high-quality grains, their work will 
not have the value it will have if farmers will care 
for this high quality seed after it is produced. 
More care and thought on the farms in the matter 
of seed selection is badly needed. 

In Regard to Treating Seed 

One of the best thing-s you can do to increase 
the profits from crops is to eliminate smut dam- 
age. This is of great importance in the United 
States, for there are few sections that do not have 
some damage done by smuts in grain crops. All 
smut damage except that of corn can be controlled 
by treating the seed. The losses from smuts are 
of two kinds: (1) Those in the field where smut- 
ted plants take the place of sound plants and (2) 
those in marketing when noticeably smutted wheat 
receives a lower grade than smut-free wheat, and 
is often rejected. The field losses in the United 
States in 1911, as estimated bv the Office of Grain 
Standardization, were as follows : From stinking 
smut of wheat, 1.7 per cent of the total wheat crop, 



Improvement of Farm Crops 65 

or 10,562,746 bushels, valued at $9,232,071; from 
smut of oats, 4 per cent, or 36,891,920 bushels, $16,- 
586,520; from covered smut of barley, 1 per cent, 
or 1,602,400 bushels, $1,391,820; from loose smut of 
wheat, 0.85 per cent, or 5,281,373 bushels, $4,616,- 
035 ; from loose smut of barley, 1.2 per cent, or 
1,922,880 bushels, $1,670,184; a total field loss of 
$33,496,630. The loss to the individual producers 
who grow smutted crops is, of course, much greater 
than the average percentage for the United States. 



Reducing- expenses by cheapening the cost of hauling. There 
is a profitable field for the extension) of the use of farm motor 
trucks. 



66 Making Money on Farm Crops 

In fact, in many of the fields in Pennsylvania, New 
Jersey, Wisconsin and Minnesota more than 10 per 
cent of the grain frequently is smutted. On the 
market, wheat affected with stinking smut to any 
considerable degree brings a lower price than smut- 
free wheat, because it can not be used for first-grade 
flour unless it is thoroughly washed and scoured. 
When the wheat is not too smutty, such cleaning 
can be done at nominal expense by mills which have 
the necessary cleaning machinery, but many mills in 
which such machinery is not installed reject all 
smutty wheat, and the producer gets a lower price 
for his product. This loss in 1911, as estimated 
from figures given in letters from state grain in- 
spectors and representative millers, was equal to a 
reduction of one grade for at least 20 per cent of 
the total wheat crop of the United States, or one 
grade for 124,267,600 bushels. The price for every 
bushel is reduced on an average at least 2 cents for 
every reduction in grade. The loss from this source 
in 1911, therefore, would be $2,485,352. With this 
added to the field loss, a total loss of $35,981,982 
was suffered by producers because of smuts in 
small grains during the year. 



Improvement of Farm Crops 67 

Use a Fanning Mill 

Then comes the important item of eliminating 
scrub kernels, for they are present even in the best 
grain. This can be done by the use of a fanning 
mill, and this implement should be part of the 
equipment of every farm where grain is grown. In 
addition to the removal of the light and undesir- 
able kernels, weed seeds also can be removed by 
this method. Discard scrub kernels just the same 
as you would scrub animals. 



CHAPTER III. 
PROFITABLE ALFALFA PRODUCTION 



CHAPTER III. 
PROFITABLE ALFALFA PRODUCTION 

It is Easy to Get a Stand 

Alfalfa Bacteria Must Be Present 

Use Only Good Seed 

Drill Alfalfa Seed if Possible 

Care of the Alfalfa Stand 

Lime for Alfalfa 

When Should Alfalfa Be Cut? 

Curing the Hay 

Store the Hay in Barns 

If You Stack Alfalfa 

Sizes of Hay Presses 

Grades of Alfalfa 

Keep the Bales Off the Ground 

As to the Moisture Content 

Enemies of Alfalfa 

Alfalfa Seed Production 

Which Crop for Seed? 

When to Cut the Seed Crop 

Threshing the Seed 

The Feeding Value of Alfalfa 

Digestibility of Alfalfa 

Loss By Weathering 

The History of Alfalfa 

The Value of Alfalfa 



CHAPTER III. 

PROFITABLE ALFALFA PRODUCTION 

Alfalfa is, perhaps, the most important legumin- 
ous plant, considering the country as a whole. It is 
a crop that first was grown on a large commercial 
scale in the West, and it has been gradually spread- 
ing eastward. This is opposite to- the way most cul- 
tivated crops have gone. From the valley of the 
Shenandoah northward to New York it is now rap- 
idly becoming almost as important a crop as on the 
broader fields of the West. It increases the wave 
of prosperity wherever it is grown. 

It is Easy to Get a Stand 

Alfalfa is easy to grow on soils that are adapted 
to the plant. You should not have any trouble in 
getting a stand on good alfalfa land, if you plant 
good seed in a well-prepared seedbed. This is the 
condition of a good seedbed for alfalfa : The soil is 
loose about as deep as the seed is planted, and be- 
low that it should be firm and make a good connec- 
tion with the subsoil. Be sure the capillary attrac- 
tion with the subsoil is well restored after plow- 
ing. A loose seedbed will not do for alfalfa. 



72 



Making Money on Farm Crops 



Alfalfa will succeed on many different soils 
ranging 1 from sandy soils to heavier types. It will 
grow best on a deep, fertile loam well supplied with 
the mineral elements of plant food. The soil must 
be well drained, for on wet land where the ground 
water is near the surface, alfalfa will grow very 
poorly, and the plants soon die. And the crop wil 
not grow on soils that are deficient in lime, if there 
is a tendency for the soil to be acid. Alfalfa wi! 
not live if there is an acid condition in the soil ; anc 
this is the cause for much of the failure in getting 
a stand on the older soils in eastern Kansas, and in 
many other sections. The crop will do very well 
usually, on limestone soils. It does well on flint} 
soils formed by the decomposition of flint rock. 
Take, for example, in eastern Oklahoma, there are, 
in some sections, flint hills alternating with sand- 




Jersey cows make a profitable addition to an alfalfa farm,, 



Profitable Alfalfa Production 73 

stone and limestone hills, and around the base of 
these hills the legumes, alfalfa, clover and cowpeas, 
all do better than they do on sandstone soils. 

Some of the land in the corn belt is so worn 
that it is not in good physical condition to grow the 
crop, and it may be best to build the soil up by 
growing an annual leguminous crop such as cowpeas, 
before alfalfa is planted. In that case, you might 
put on the soil all the barnyard manure you can get, 
for it will have time to get into the soil before the 
alfalfa is seeded. Do not put manure on the soil 
the same year the crop is planted, for it will inter- 
fere with the capillary attraction, and not leave the 
soil in good condition for the crop. 

Alfalfa Bacteria Must Be Present 

Much of the failure in growing alfalfa is due to 
the lack of nitrogen-gathering bacteria in the soil. 
Bacteria grow on the roots of alfalfa, and gather the 
nitrogen from the air, which is stored on the roots 
in little nodules or swellings. Alfalfa will not make 
a good growth unless these bacteria are present. 
Nitrogen is an essential element for the growth of 
all plants, and on most soils it is the element most 
easily exhausted. And it is the most expensive ele- 
ment to purchase in the form of commercial fertil- 
izers. The legumes are the only family of plants 



74 Making Money on Farm Crops 

that can use the nitrogen of the air, and they can 
not do so unless the bacteria are present and are 
working properly. All other plants must use merely 
the supply of nitrogen in the soil, and this usually 
is the limiting element in the yield of crops. 

If the alfalfa bacteria are not present, you must 
supply them, of course. Now, there are many com- 
mercial cultures advertised that are successful if 
the conditions are all right, but if all of the condi- 
tions are not right, they will fail. So it is best to 
inoculate the land by the transfer of soil from an 
old alfalfa field. Transfer about 300 pounds of soil 
to the acre, and spread it over the field to be put 
in alfalfa, just before the seed is planted. Be very 
careful that the dirt does not dry out while it is 
being spread on the field, and harrow it in promptly, 
to mix it with the other soil. If the soil dries out 
too -badly, the bacteria may die. And always use 
soil from an old alfalfa field to inoculate the new 
field if you can get it, for it is much more certain 
than artificial cultures. And this is important also: 
The bacteria that grow on the roots of sweet clover 
are the same as those that grow on the roots of 
alfalfa, and you can use soil from a sweet clover 
patch if you can not get alfalfa soil. 

Under humid conditions, it usually will be best 
to sow alfalfa in the fall. Farther west, spring seed- 



Profitable Alfalfa Production 



75 



ing is sometimes to be preferred to fall seeding. If 
the seed is sown in the fall, some of the small grain 
crops usually will be grown for the preceding crop. 
In this case, the soil should be plowed early in July, 
about four inches deep. Harrow the ground after 
the plow, promptly, in order to break up the clods. 
Then disk the ground about every two weeks dur- 
ing the summer, until the seed is planted. Of 
course, if a drouth sets in and the surface becomes 



ISiil 




syyyyy?; 




A small flock of sheep can profitably b© kept on most farms, 

dry and loose, you need not disk the soil until a 
crust forms. These diskings will firm the soil and 
restore capillary attraction with the subsoil, con- 



76 Making Money on Farm Crops 

serve the moisture and aid in the formation of avail- 
able plant food. All of this will put the soil in good 
condition, so the plants can make a good growth 
to stand the freezing of the winter. . 

No matter what methods you use, have these 
conditions when you plant the seed: Have the soil 
well pulverized about as deep as the seed is planted, 
and have it firm with a good capillary attraction 
with the subsoil below that. 

Use Only Good Seed 

There is some very poor alfalfa seed on the mar- 
ket every year. Much of it contains a large amount 
of weed seed, such as the seeds of dodder, plantain 
and dock, and with much of it the germination is 
low. In the buying of alfalfa seed, take this as an 
axiom to follow : Don't take anybody's word for 
anything. Always buy on sample, and know just 
what you are getting. Unless you are familiar with 
alfalfa seed you had better send a sample of the 
seed you expect to buy to the botanical department 
of your state agricultural college. The department 
will tell you the percentage of weed seeds present, 
just what these weeds are, and the per cent of the 
alfalfa seed that will grow. In that way, you can 
be certain of what you are getting. And you will, 
of course, have to pay a good price for seed. The 



Profitable Alfalfa Production 77 

good grades of seed always are the cheapest. The 
colleges will cheerfully do this testing work free of 
charge. 

If you desire to make a germination test of the 
seed yourself, and it is an interesting and important 
thing to do even if you have the seed tested by 
someone else, you can do it in this way: Take a 
cigar box or other small box, and place several 
folds of wet paper in the bottom. Place 100 seeds 
in this box that are a fair sample of the seed you 
desire to test. Cover the seeds with several folds of 
wet paper, and set the box in a warm place; almost 
anywhere will do in the summer months. Examine 
the seed in five days, count the seeds that have ger- 
minated, and throw them away. Remoisten the 
paper, and set the remainder of the seeds away for 
five days more. At the end of that time, count the 
germination results again, and stop the test. A large 
percentage of germination for the first five days 
indicates good, strong seed, while a slow germina- 
tion indicates a weak seed that will not germinate 
in the field except under the most favorable condi- 
tions. The seed should germinate as high as 80 per 
cent. 

Drill Alfalfa Seed if Possible 

If you have planted the alfalfa on a well-pre- 
pared seedbed in favorable soil, you need not drill 



78 Making Money on Farm Crops 

in so very much seed. Heavy alfalfa seeding is not 
necessary. Twelve pounds of alfalfa sown on a well 
prepared seedbed will produce a good stand of the 
crop. 

Always drill in the seed, if you can get a drill 
with a good grass-seed attachment. The drill will 
put the seed in the soil where the moisture will be 
available for the germination. Do not plant the 
seed too deep. Usually the seed should not be put 
in deeper than one inch, and on heavy soils the seed 
should be covered less than that. If the seed is 
planted too deeply, the young plants can not reach 
the surface, as the amount of plant food that is 
stored in an alfalfa seed is very small. 

Care of the Alfalfa Stand 

A very heavy stand of alfalfa is not so desirable 
as a medium stand. Ten or twelve stalks to the 
square foot is a thick enough stand, and it will pro- 
duce better results than where the stand is thicker. 
It also is true that thin sown stands of alfalfa last 
better. Thickly sown stands tend to die rapidly. 

Alfalfa should be cultivated, under most condi- 
tions. This is not so much to split the stems and 
thus increase the stand, as some farmers think, as 
it is to stir the ground, and aid in the conservation 
of moisture and the rendering available of plant 
food. Cultivation early in the spring also destroys 



x 



Profitable Alfalfa Production 



79 



insects, and the eggs of insects that live on alfalfa, 
and this benefit usually is of great importance. 

Do most of the cultivating by disking, early in 
the spring. The first year, do not use the disk, for 
the plants are not well enough established to stand 
its use. Generally it will pay, however, to run the 
peg-toothed harrow over the field. DO' not culti- 
vate with a disk until after the plants have become 




A dependable farm team. 

well established. Set the disks about as straight as 
possible, for if you do not, the crowns of the plants 
will be cut off. Generally it will be necessary to 
weight the disk. 



80 Making Money on Farm Crops 

Lime for Alfalfa 

Alfalfa absolutely will not grow and produce 
profitable crops where the soil is sour, or where 
there is poor drainage. If you have either of these 
conditions in your fields, you should correct them 
before alfalfa is sown. Use tile drains to remedy 
wet conditions, and apply lime for the acid. Usually, 
the best form in which to apply the lime is ground 
limestone, for it generally is cheaper, and it does 
not have so destructive an effect on the humus as 
quicklime. Do not apply lime to the crop directly 
but apply it to the land some time before the crop 
is sown ; a year before if ground limestone is used. 

The amount of the application will vary with 
the amount of acid in the soil, of course, but, in 
general, two tons and sometimes more of ground 
limestone will be about right. Heavy applications 
are necessary where there is a great amount of acid. 

When Should Alfalfa Be Cut? 

Cut alfalfa when about one-tenth is in bloom. 
That means the crop should be cut when you can 
see blossoms here and there as you walk over the 
fields. This is an ideal stage for harvesting that 
is not used so much as it should be by alfalfa grow- 
ers, especially for the first and second crops. These 
crops, especially in the corn belt, tend to interfere 



Profitable Alfalfa Production 81 

with other farm operations, so the cutting of the 
crop is delayed. As a result, many growers are 
harvesting a crop of alfalfa straw instead of hay and 
the yield also is decreased, for if the first two crops 
are cut .from a week to ten days, and sometimes 
longer, later than they should be, the number of 
cuttings will be one less than if all crops had been 
cut promptly. In Missouri, five cuttings can be ob- 



; ; ;- : i rismt'A 






By the careful use of modern machinery, alfalfa may be handled 
with a slight loss of leaves, and the labor can be reduced. 

tained practically every year, if the cuttings are 
made at the proper time. But on many farms, this 
delay is the rule, and the number of cuttings then 
is reduced to four. 



82 Making Money on Farm Crops 

If it happens that you have hay that practically 
reached maturity before you cut it, feed it to horses, 
for, if there is any difference, mature alfalfa hay is 
not so apt to have injurious effects on horses. When 
frost has killed a partly matured crop, cut it at 
once, for the plants will start much better from the 
stubble than they will 'from the frosted tops. 

Curing the Hay 

After one has cut alfalfa at the proper stage, the 
most important thing then is to cure it so the leaves 
will not be lost. In common farm practice, quite 
a large percentage of the leaves are lost, which is 
about like losing an equal amount of good wheat 
bran, for the stems, on account of their high pro- 
tein content, are about that valuable. The aim 
should be to expose the plants, after they have been 
cut, to the drying influences of the sun no longer 
than necessary. Do as much of the curing in the 
shock as is possible. The reason is this : If the 
stems are raked into windrows before the leaves are 
dry, they will continue to pump the moisture out 
of the stems, and the stems and leaves will cure 
out together. If the hay is left in the swath, ex- 
posed to the heat of the sun, the leaves are cooked, 
they become dry and brittle, and they fall off when 
the hay is raked. If your hay ever gets in this 



Profitable Alfalfa Production 83 

condition, do not rake it until dew has fallen, and 
then the hay may be raked without losing so much 
of the leaves. 

So this is the general plan to use : Rake the 
hay after the plants are well wilted, and do most 
of the curing in the windrow. After the hay is 
cured, haul it to the barns, and be careful in the 
handling to lose as few leaves as possible. 

Store the Hay in Barns 

There is not the slightest excuse, in this mod- 
ern age with the high prices of hay, for stacking 
alfalfa. This high-priced hay does not turn water 
well, anyway, and if it is stacked, there always is 
a big loss to the hay, both in quality and quantity. 
A farmer can make more interest on money in- 
vested in hay sheds than he can in perhaps any- 
thing else on the farm, unless it is on money in- 
vested in machinery sheds. 

Many types of hay barns are used, and all have 
their advantages. On stock farms, the type of stock 
barn that is commonly .used in the West is good. 
Have the barn comparatively narrow, so there need 
not be much work done in distributing the hay after 
it has been dropped from the carrier. Twenty-eight 
feet is as wide as the barn should be and perhaps 
24 feet is better. Have the barn as long as is needed 



84 Making Money on Farm Crops 

to hold the hay of the farm, and as high as economy 
of construction dictates. The sheds for stock should 
be on both sides, and have chutes arranged so hay 
may be thrown directly to the feed bunks, which 
should be in the shed. This will permit the animals 
to eat indoors, and thus be protected from the 
weather. That is important during the cold days of 
winter, for protection from exposure means that the 
animals will not need so much feed to keep them 
in good condition. Arranging the barn so the hay 
may be thrown directly into the feed bunks is of 
considerable importance, for it takes a great deal 
of extra labor to get the hay into wagons, and then 
pitch it into feed bunks. 

If You Stack Alfalfa, 

Keep the centers of the stacks high, if you do 
stack this crop. Alfalfa does not shed water well 
under any circumstances, and every effort must be 
made, in humid sections, to keep out the rain. Build 
large stacks, if the moisture content of the crop is 
down so it is safe. Of course, in the irrigated sec- 
tions where there is little or no danger from rain, 
all these elaborate precautions are not necessary. 

Always have stack covers that may be spread 
over the unfinished stacks at night, to guard against 
rain. In buying these covers, be sure you get them 






Eol. 



86 



Making Money on Farm Crops 



large enough, and you should get the ones that 
have been treated with chemicals to make them 
mildew proof. Cover the alfalfa stacks with coarse 
grass — the slough grass that grows in most sections 



ilflis 




Stacking alfalfa in Nebraska. 

is all right — to aid in shedding water. This coarse 
grass sheds water well, and as it does not have a 
high feeding value, anyway, it can be used with 
considerable profit on the tops of alfalfa stacks. 

The high price of alfalfa in the last few years 
has encouraged many men to go into raising it for 
the market, and however reprehensible this practice 
may be, it is an industry of increasing importance. 
When this is the practice, the hay should be baled 
in the field, for there is a big loss of leaves if the 
crop is first put in the barn or stack, and then re- 



Profitable Alfalfa Production 87 

handled in getting it into the bales. Use power, 
not only on account of greater economy in opera- 
tion, but also because where the horses go around 
on the circle of the horse-power baler, the alfalfa 




Loading alfalfa in Colorado. This is a sure way to exhaust any 
soil. Feed livestock and save the fertility. 

will be killed, and there will be unsightly weed 
patches in the fields. Then, there is no use in 
knocking out teams on the baler, for they will be 
needed for other things later. Working on a baler 
is about the hardest work a team can do. 

Sizes of Hay Presses 

At the present time more than 70 makes of hay 
presses are on the market. As a result of the com- 
bined efforts of the hay associations and the manu- 
facturers the sizes of presses have been standard- 



88 Making Money on Farm Crops 

ized within the past few years, making it easier for 
farmers to decide on the proper size to buy. 

The sizes in general use now are as follows, ac- 
cording to the class of bales made : 

Dimensions of small bales 14x18x38 in., 16x18x36 in. 

Dimensions of medium bales. ... 17x22x36 in., 18x22x36 in. 
Dimensions of large bales 22x28x46 in. 

The length of either size may be greater than 
the length here given. These sizes, with the excep- 
tion of the 18 by 22 by 36-inch bale, are those in 
greatest demand in city markets, and in these mar- 
kets they are known as standard bales. The va- 
rious box presses make bales of a miscellaneous 
assortment of sizes, such as 42 by 18 by 20 inches, 
44 by 24 by 22 inches, and 60 by 26 by 24 inches. 

In respect to weight the standard bales vary as 
follows : Small bales from 70 to 100 pounds, me- 
dium from 100 to 150 pounds, and large from 150 
to 250 pounds. This variation is due partly to the 
degree of compression and partly to the length of 
the bale. 

Grades of Alfalfa 

The usual grades of alfalfa on the principal mar- 
ket centers are : 

Choice Alfalfa — Shall be reasonably fine leafy 
alfalfa of bright green color, properly cured, sound, 
sweet, and well baled. 

No. 1 Alfalfa — Shall be coarse alfalfa of natural 



Profitable Alfalfa Production 89 

color or reasonably fine leafy alfalfa of good color, 
and may contain 5 per cent of foreign grasses ; must 
be well baled, sound, and sweet. 

No. 2 Alfalfa — Shall include alfalfa somewhat 
bleached, but of fair color, reasonably leafy, not 
more than one-eighth foreign grasses, sound, and 
well baled. 

No. 3 Alfalfa — Shall include bleached alfalfa or 
alfalfa mixed with not to exceed one-fourth foreign 
grasses, but when mixed must be of fair color, 
sound, and well baled. 

No-Grade Alfalfa — Shall include all alfalfa not 
good enough for other grades, caked, musty, greasy, 
or thrashed. 

Keep the Bales Off the Ground 

In humid sections, where the bales are not 
hauled to the barn so soon as they are baled s they 




Power balers are the most economical. 



90 Making Money on Farm Crops 

should be piled on sleds that raise the bales off the 
ground. Then cover the bales with canvas. If you 
do not- do this, the parts of the bales that are on the 
ground will be spoiled, if rain falls. If the bales 
are piled off the ground, and covered, they will not 
be injured if it does rain, and they will cure better 
than if they were hauled to the barn at once. 

As to the Moisture Content 

There is more danger from moisture on alfalfa 
than from moisture in it, when it comes to having 
the hay heat. That means you should be especially 
careful with dew and rain, for it will have an espe- 
cially damaging effect, after it is placed in the mow. 
When alfalfa is first cut, it will range high in water 
content ; frequently as high as 75 or 80 per cent. 
When it is well wilted, and at the proper stage to 
rake, it will contain about 45 per cent. From then 
on, it loses moisture much slower, and the amount 
finally is reduced to from 18 to 22 per cent, when 
the hay is at the proper stage to put in the mow. 
After it is placed in the mow, the moisture content 
decreases slowly, and finally gets down to about 12 
per cent. It rarely goes lower. 

There is no absolutely certain way to determine 
the amount of hay in a mow by measuring it, but 
a fairly accurate way is to allow a seven and one- 



Profitable Alfalfa Production 91 

half foot cube, or 422 cubic feet a ton, for hay that 
has been stored for several months. After the hay 
has been stored for a long time, and is about as well 
settled as it ever will be, a seven foot cube, or 343 
cubic feet is about right. Any method, however, of 
measuring hay is only approximate, and the only 
accurate way is to weigh it. 

Enemies of Alfalfa 

Alfalfa is comparatively free from plant diseases. 
The few that do> attack the plant do not have a 
wide distribution, as a rule. Red root-rot is a dis- 
ease that has caused considerable damage in Eu- 
rope, and in parts of the United States. Brown 
root-rot, which is somewhat similar to the red root- 
rot, has been reported in Texas, and has done some 
damage there. Rust and downy mildew some- 
times bother one crop, but as a rule they do not 
trouble them all. 

Gophers bother the fields in some places, and 
about the best way to get rid of this pest is to 
poison them. Grasshoppers trouble the alfalfa fields 
of the West, and the growers there use hopperdo- 
zers, which are shallow pans containing water and 
kerosene that are run over the land, just above the 
plants. The grasshoppers jump into the pans as 



92 Making Money on Farm Crops 

they are moved over the ground, in regular lands, 
and the insects are killed. 

The clover hay worm is very fond of and de- 
votes its entire attention to the various clover and 
alfalfa hays. The caterpillars usually appear toward 
the bottom of the stack in early spring, the hay 
which they infest having a moldy appearance due 
to the numerous fine silken threads they spin as, 
they crawl about through it. It is badly cut up and 
rendered unfit for stock. This insect may be held 
in check by never stacking clover hay for two suc- 
cessive seasons in the same place, cleaning out the 
mow every spring so no old hay will be left over 
in the barn until the new comes, and never putting 
new alfalfa hay on top of old, either in stack or in 
mow. The worms in the hay can, if sufficient care 
and trouble be taken, be killed in the stack or mow 
by fumigation, but preventive measures are most 
satisfactory. 

Alfalfa Seed Production 

There is a good profit in growing alfalfa seed 
where a fair crop can be produced. According to 
the bulletin of the U. S. Department of Agriculture 
on growing alfalfa for seed, the factors of greatest 
importance are thickness of stand, soil moisture, 
and such climatic factors as rainfall and tempera- 
ture. The local variation of one or more of these 



Profitable Alfalfa Production 93 

factors accounts for the great fluctuations in seed 
yield often observed in a given season in a single 
locality and even on different parts of the same 
farm. 

Experiments and observations have shown that 
thin stands of alfalfa tend to make good yields of 
seed much more certain. The reason for this lies 
largely in the fact that a thin stand permits a more 
complete development of individual plants. The 
greater amount of sunlight received by every plant 
in thin stands also tends to increase the production 
of seed. It is a matter of common observation that 
isolated plants along roadsides and in fence rows 
ordinarily produce much heavier crops of seed than 
do the plants in near-by fields. 

The moisture content of the land is an important 
thing. It must be enough to enable the plant to 
mature its crop but not enough to cause the crown 
shoots to start while the seed is maturing. This 
margin between too much and too little water is a 
small one, and this is one of the principal causes of 
failure in producing seed. 

Which Crop for Seed? 

Usually the second or the third crop is left for 
seed, depending on the locality. August is a good 
time to have the plants maturing their seeds. The 



94: 



Making Money on Farm Crops 



setting- of the seed should be watched carefully, for 
if there is to be a light and consequently unprofit- 
able setting of seed, as is often the case, it is im- 
portant that this be known as early as possible, so 
the crop may be cut at once for hay, and the suc- 
ceeding hay crop allowed to begin its development. 
If the conditions before blooming are such as to 
produce a rank vegetative growth, it is a fairly sure 






Luncheon. 

indication that the chances are poor for seed. If, 
however, the soil becomes dry just at this time, a 
fair' seed crop may sometimes be obtained. Also, 
if the blossoms appear sparingly or if they appear 
freely but blast or wither without setting pods, the 
chances for a seed crop are greatly reduced, and 
the crop should be cut at once for hay. After this 



Profitable Alfalfa Production 95 

cutting, another fair crop of hay may usually be 
obtained. If the cutting be delayed too long, it will 
be at the expense of the next crop, as the time for 
its development may be short. Another indication 
that a seed crop is likely to be very light is shown 
when the basal shoots begin to grow in anticipa- 
tion of the succeeding crop. The development of 
these basal shoots takes place at the expense of seed 
development on the older stems. 

If heavy rains occur or if continued cold, 
damp, rainy weather conditions prevail when the 
plants are in full bloom, the prospects of a seed 
crop are greatly reduced. 

The chances for seed are good if the reverse of 
the above conditions prevail, and the plants have 
made a medium stocky, well-branched growth with 
an abundance of bloom, especially if the warm, dry 
conditions continue. It is practically impossible, 
however, to infallibly foretell the seed crop. The 
crop is not assured until the plants are well loaded 
with clusters of well-filled pods. 

When to Cut the Seed Crop 

Cut alfalfa for seed when two-thirds of the pods 
have turned brown. The crop ripens in a very un- 
even manner, and if it is left much later than this, 
many of the heads will shatter, and mHch of the 



96 



Making Money on Farm Crops 



seed will be lost. The heads that have turned only 
to a straw color at the time they are cut will make 
a fair quality of seed that will grow, although it 
will be somewhat lacking in plumpness. This table 
shows the result of cutting alfalfa at different stages 
of maturity. 



Stage of maturity. 



Percentage of seed found to 1 







t-t 






o 






<D 




* 


& 




n3 


nri 


f> 


ti 




s 


C$ 


rri 


<j 


B 


o 



*>>; 



u o 



Pods green and not fully filled out 

Pods green but full size 

Pods just turning from green to a 

light-straw color; plump 

Pods tured to a light brown; 

plump 

Pods turned brown; fully matured. 



94 
73 



17 



6 

27 



S3 



S9 
91 



69 

68 



25 



20 
23 



*The so-called "hard seed" is perfectly good, but the 
seed coats are so hard that they are unable to take up 
moisture and sprout promptly. This condition disappears 
as the seed becomes older and is usually negligible in seed 
two or three years old. In sowing seed less than one year 
old, the proportion of seed that will not sprout promptly 
should be determined, and the necessary increase in the 
amount of seed to be sown should be provided for. 

Threshing the Seed 

Alfalfa may be cut for seed with either a self- 
rake reaper or a mowing machine equipped with a 
side-delivery buncher that will place the alfalfa out 
of the way, so the team and mower will not have to 
go over it on the next round. The use of one or 



98 Making Money on Farm Crops 

the other of these tools is almost essential for the 
seed will be shattered badly, if it is handled like 
hay. Where the crop is not too heavy, it is possi- 
ble to cut it with a grain binder, and this is the best 
way. In handling the alfalfa seed crop from the 
field to the stack, be careful that you do not shat- 
ter the heads. Use racks that have tight bottoms, 
to catch the seed that shatters out. 

An alfalfa huller is the most satisfactory ma- 
chine to use for hulling alfalfa seed. Where a huller 
is not available, an ordinary threshing machine can 
be used with fair results, if it is handled properly. 
It will be necessary to put up the concaves, and put 
in a special set of alfalfa sieves. 

The straw obtained after the seed is threshed 
has about half the feeding value of the best alfalfa 
hay, but even this is considerable, and should be 
carefully saved. The bureau of chemistry of the U. 
S. Department of Agriculture has compiled the fol- 
lowing table to show this value : 

COMPOSITION OF ALFALFA STRAW AS COM- 
PARED WITH THAT OF ORDINARY 
ALFALFA HAY. 



Constituents. 


Alf 


alfa. 


Straw, Pct.| Hay, Pet. 


Water 


6.26 
5.13 
6.753 

47.82 

32.20 

.84 


8.4 


Ash 


7.4 


Protein 


14.3 


Crude fiber 


25.0 


Nitrogen-free extract 


42.7 


Etlier extract (fat) 


2.2 



Profitable Alfalfa Production 



99 



The Feeding Value of Alfalfa 

Alfalfa, where is will grow well, will produce a 
greater amount of digestible nutrients to the acre 
than any other crop. It is especially high in pro- 
tein, and that makes it especially valuable for young 
animals. But on account of its high protein con- 
tent, alfalfa is not a perfectly balanced ration or 
anywhere near it, and other feeds should be fed 
with it, in order to get the best results. 

Alfalfa is one of the best feeds for cattle. It is 
of great importance in fattening cattle, and it also 
can be fed with great profit to young stock. When 




On a dairy farm in Pennsylvania, 



100 Making Money on Farm Crops 

it is fed to cattle that are being roughed through, 
even small feeds have a very beneficial effect, and 
it is possible to feed large quantities of cheaper 
feeds and still have the animals go through the win- 
ter in good condition, if they receive even small 
quantities of alfalfa. 

Its value as a feed for dairy cows is so well 
known that comment is not needed. 

For hogs, the hay is too bulky to be used for 
fattening purposes on account of their limited diges- 
tive capacity. With brood sows, the case is dif- 
ferent, and good alfalfa hay is rapidly becoming one 
of the important feeds for them in the winter. Sows 
that are fed alfalfa usually produce large litters of 
well formed pigs, in marked contrast to sows that 
have a ration composed too largely of corn. The 
value of alfalfa as a pasture for hogs is supreme. 
It is the best hog pasture crop, in sections where it 
will grow well. 

Many farmers believe alfalfa is not a good feed 
for horses, and it is not when fed in large amounts 
to horses that are working hard in hot weather, 
although some farmers report good results even un- 
der these conditions. But there is no doubt that as 
a feed to make up part of the ration when horses 
are not working hard, alfalfa has considerable value, 
and should be fed, when it can be obtained. 



Profitable Alfalfa Production 101 

Here is the average composition of alfalfa hay 
grown in Kansas, as given by the Kansas Experi- 
ment Station : 

COMPOSITION OF ALFALFA HAY. 

First stage, Second stage, Third stage, 
about 10% about one-half full 

in bloom. in bloom. bloom. 

Water 8.77 7.71 8.29 

Ash 9.54 9.49 7.75 

Crude protein 16.88 15.88 13.23 

Pure protein 13.56 12.63 10.62 

Crude fiber 29.38 31.44 33.11 

Nitrogen-free extract 34.01 34.23 '36.34 
Crude fat 1.42 L25 1.30 

Of course, the composition of all feeds tends to 
change slightly in different localities. 

Digestibility of Alfalfa 

Well matured alfalfa hay is high in the amount 

of digestible matter. The digestibility of the hays 

referred to was ascertained, and the following table 

shows the results : 

PERCENTAGES OF THE CONSTITUENTS OF 

ALFALFA HAY DIGESTED. 

First crop; three stages of growth. Calculated to water- 

free basis. 

First stage. Second stage. Third stage. 

Ash 6.69 5.78 5.16 

Crude protein 14.51 12.89 11.37 

Pure protein 11.94 9.90 8.57 

Fiber 14.51 17.11 17.43 

Nitrogen-free extract 28.52 26.96 30.72 

Crude fat 98 .42 .75 

Total 65.21 63.16 65.43 



102 Making Money on Farm Crops 

"Here it is seen that the digestible protein dimin- 
ishes markedly as the alfalfa matures, while the 
digestible carbohydrates increase. A calculation of 
the nutritive ratio in each case brings out this fact 
in a concise way. The nutritive ratio of a feed is 
the ration of the energy of the digestible nitrogen- 
ous substances to the energy of the digestible non- 
nitrogenous substances. Making the necessary cal- 
culations, the nutritive ratios are found to be as fol- 
lows: First stage, 1 to 3.11; second stage, 1 to 
3.49 ; third stage, 1 to 4.38. These are all narrow 
ratios, but they widen as the alfalfa matures. 

"A full appreciation of the feeding value of alfalfa 
cannot be had without comparisons with other 
feeds. The average percentage of digestible con- 
stituents in well-known feeds is shown in the fol- 
lowing table : 

PERCENTAGES DIGESTIBLE OF FEEDS AND 
THEIR NUTRITIVE RATIO. 

Carbohy- Nutritive 

Feed Protein drates Fat Ratio 

Corn 77l4 66.12 4^97 1:10.8 

Oats 9.25 48.34 4.18 1:6.2 

Wheat 10.28 69.21 1.68 1:7.1 

Bran 12.01 41.23 2.87 1 : 4.0 

Shorts 12.22 49.98 3.83 1:4.8 

Timothy hay .... 2.89 43.72 1.43 1:16.2 

Red clover . . 7.38 38.15 ^81 1: 5.7 

"It will be seen that alfalfa cut at the first stage 

gave a hay that had a higher percentage of digesti- 



Profitable Alfalfa Production 103 

ble protein than any of the feeds named in the table, 
and that the digestible carbohydrates — fiber plus 
nitrogen-free extract — of alfalfa compare favorably 
with those in the feeds cited, and in some cases ex- 
ceed them. The nutritive ratios bring out clearly 
the value of alfalfa as a source of protein, and its 
great availability in balancing rations." 

Loss By Weathering 

It is apparent that alfalfa hay is greatly dam- 
aged by rain. This is due not only to fermentations 
that may accompany the process and to mechanical 
losses, but also to the fact that soluble substances 
are dissolved out and removed. Observations have 
been made by the Colorado Experiment Station 
upon a hay which was exposed in the field for fif- 
teen days, during which time it was subjected to 
three rains, amounting to 1.76 inches. The follow- 
ing table shows the composition of the damaged 
and of the undamaged hay: 



PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF ALFALFA 
FOR AND AFTER DAMAGE BY RAIN. 


BE- 


Pro- 
Ash tein Fiber 


Nitro- 
gen-free 
Extract 


Fat 


Original 12.2 18.7 26.5 

Damaged 12.7 11.0 38.8 


38.7 
33.6 


3.9 
3.8 



104 Making Money on Farm Crops 

The History of Alfalfa 

Man has cultivated alfalfa for many centuries. 
It originally was cultivated in the countries around 
the Mediterranean Sea, and the evidence indicates 
the people there obtained it from central Asia. It 
was introduced into the United States by the Span- 
ish settlers, and was grown in the Western States 
first. It gradually has spread to the Eastern States. 
The first car of alfalfa received on the Kansas City 
market arrived in 1892. Alfalfa hay was not graded 
on that market until 1898. 

The Value of Alfalfa 

The importance of alfalfa is now well under- 
stood by most farmers, and the acreage is increasing 
rapidly. There will be a much greater extension of 
the acreage in the future. The acreage in the United 
States could be doubled with considerable profit. 



CHAPTER IV. 
HOW TO GROW CLOVER 



CHAPTER IV. 

HOW TO GROW CLOVER 

Soils for Clover 
Clover in the Rotation 
Sowing Clover Seed 
Medium Red Clover 
Getting the Stand 
Yellow Trefoil in Red Clover Seed 
When to Cut Medium Red Clover 
Storing the Hay- 
How to Make a Pole Stacker 
When Clover Hay is Placed in the Mow 
Red Clover for Ensilage 
To Destroy Clover Insects 
Cutting for Seed 
Utilization of Clover Straw 
Enemies of Red Clover 
The Clover Root-Borer 
Red Clover for Pasture 
Bloating of Animals on Clover 
Red Clover as a Feed 
Clover for Seed 
To Destroy Clover Insects 
Cutting for Seed 
The Clover Root-Borer 
Fungous Diseases of Red Clover 
How About Mammoth Clover? 
White Clover for Pasture 



CHAPTER IV. 

HOW TO GROW CLOVER 

Clovers are adapted to a great variety of condi- 
tions, and they are very extensively grown in this 
country. Their acreage is especially large in the 
North-Central states, where alfalfa has not taken 
the field, as yet. The Mammoth Red and Medium 
Red varieties, which are the most important, con- 
sidering the country as a whole, can be grown the 
best between parallels 37 and 49 north latitude. 
Alsike clover has a range of adaptation that is 
somewhat similar to that of the Mammoth, and Me- 
dium red varieties, but it also may be grown farr 
ther north, and in localities where the soil is wet. 
Alsike is especially adapted to wet conditions, and 
should be grown there, but where the land is 
adapted to the growth of the other two crops, they 
usually will produce greater returns. Crimson 
clover grows well in the states east of the Allegheny 
mountains, and in the South. White clover will 
grow almost anywhere there is a sufficient amount 
of moisture. 



/ 



108 Making Money on Farm Crops 

Soils for Clover 

Red clover grows best on clay-loam soils, but it 
has a range of adaptation, and is found growing 




Running the separator. 

well on soils that range from rather sandy types to 
very heavy and compact soils. In southeastern Kan- 



How to Grow Clover 109 

sas, where the soil types may change from poor 
blackjack hill ground that has been formed mostly 
by the decay of sandstone to heavy hardpan lands 
in a few hundred yards, clover may be found grow- 
ing successfully on both types. In this connection, 
it might be said that the adaptation of clover for 
sandy lands varies markedly with the subsoil. If 
the sand is underlaid with a clay subsoil at a depth 
of not more than 18 inches, the crop will do much 
better than if the subsoil is sand. 

Clovers are gross feeders on potash and lime, 
and the sandy soils often are deficient in these ele- 
ments. However, by fertilization methods such as 
those that have been worked out on the poor soils 
of the Atlantic coast states, this crop may be grown 
even on almost the poorest of these lands. Clover is 
not adapted to growing on muck soils, for such 
land usually is deficient in mineral elements clover 
needs in abundance. 

Clover in the Rotation 

Clover is especially adapted as a rotation crop, 
for it will add much nitrogen to the land in a com- 
paratively short time, and in that respect it is ahead 
of alfalfa, which is not so well adapted to a short 
rotation. Its place in the rotation will depend 
largely on the other crops grown, of course, but 



110 Making Money on Farm Crops 

under cornbelt conditions, the best crop to follow it 
is corn. Clover adds much nitrogen and humus to 
the soil. It also tends to lessen weed growth, and 
all these factors make it especially adapted to grow- 
ing before corn. If the crop is grown before wheat, 
there may be such a large amount of soluble nitro- 
gen in the land that the wheat will lodge, and most 
of it thus be lost. 

The rotation of corn, oats, wheat and clover is 
common in the cornbelt, and it is good. In this ro- 
tation, some of the best money-making crops are 
grown, and they all make a logical rotation. Clover 
should be grown with wheat as a nurse crop, if the 
land is fairly fertile. It is especially adapted to 
spending its first few months under another crop. 
Wheat is an especially good nurse crop. The leaves 
tend to ripen slowly, and let the light and heat in 
to the clover gradually, and thus when the wheat 
is cut, the sun is not so hard on the plants as it 
would have been with some other crops ; oats, for 
example. 

The seed may be sown on the last snow, or it 
may be sown about April 1, and harrowed in. The 
latter usually will be found to be the best way. If 
the seed is sown on the last snow, some of the 
plants will be killed, if there is a warm period in 
which they are started and this is followed by se- 



How to Grow Clover 111 

vere cold weather. This frequently happens, and 
many stands of clover have been lost in this way. 
If you wait until later in the spring, after the dan- 
ger of severe frosts has passed, and then plant the 
seed, the plants will not be killed. If the land is 
harrowed properly, the seed will be placed where it 
will germinate readily, and the harrowing frequently 
will be a positive benefit to the wheat. There 
usually is a crust formed on the land that should 
be broken in the spring, if the plants are to make 
the best growth. 

Sowing Clover Seed 

There are a few farmers who can do a good job 
of sowing clover seed by hand, but the proportion 
is small. Not many of the younger farmers have 
learned this art well enough so they can do the 
work well, and the cost of the education of the aver- 
age man for this work is great, considering the 
number of poor stands he must sow until he gets 
experience. It always is best to use a seeder, and 
there are many seeders on the market that are good. 
When the seed is to be sown on land that is not in 
a nurse crop, use a drill with a grass-seed attach- 
ment. The seed can be placed at a proper depth 
much better than when it is sown broadcast. 



112 Making Money on Farm Crops 

Medium Red Clover 

Medium red clover also is known by such com- 
mon names as common red and broadleafed clover. 
In many cases it is called red clover, and the larger 
variety mammoth, to distinguish it. It has a spread- 
ing-upright habit of growth. Every plant contains 
several heads, usually many, and a clover field in 
bloom is a most beautiful sight. Pigs in the clover 
is one of the principal themes of farm poets. 

In most of the corn states, this crop is a bien- 
nial, but on the Pacific Coast it is a perennial. Even 
in the corn states, however, some of the plants seem 
to be perennial. And this condition also causes 
many of the fields in that section to last for more 
than two years : Wheat cutting, corn plowing and 
clover cutting come at the same time, in the latter 
part of June and the first part of July, and clover 
usually is the crop that must wait. Frequently, 
some of the seed gets ripe and shatters off when it 
is raked. Thus the plants tend to reseed the field. 

Red clover furnishes an excellent grade of hay, 
and is valuable for pasture, especially in the spring 
and fall. Most stock raisers pasture the crops early 
in the spring and in the fall, and they get some 
valuable feed at a time it is needed badly. Pastur- 
ing clover in the spring- is a positive advantage 
where there is trouble in getting it cut at the proper 



How to Grow Clover 



113 



time. The pasturing will delay the maturing for 
some time, until the rush of the harvest is past. 
And then, on very rich soils, it will tend to prevent 
the crop falling down. That is one of the disrepu- 




A Holstein champion. 

table things clover sometimes will do, where the 
soil is rich. If timothy is sown with the crop, it 
will tend to prevent this to a considerable extent, 
but pasturing also will aid materially. 

Getting the Stand 

One of the principal sources of failure in grow- 
ing clover is poor seed. Good seed is plump and 



114 Making Money on Farm Crops 

bright, with the color ranging from violet to light 
brown. New seed usually has a hard seed-coat, and 
it may not be so desirable to sow as older seed. This 
seed-coat in clover and alfalfa is a deceptive thing. 
Usually the stand will be increased after the first lot 
of plants has come up. Many of the seeds, espe- 
cially if they are not old, have a hard seed-coat, and 
it takes some time for the moisture to bring about 
germination. 

Poor clover seed may be shriveled, and if it is, 
the germination usually is weak. Such seed gener- 
ally is dull-brown in color. Frequently the seed is 
adulterated or contains bad weeds that should pro- 
hibit its use as seed. The introduction of plantain, 
yellow trefoil and the like in red clover seed is too 
common, for a large percentage of such seed on the 
market contains these weed seeds. The only way 
to be sure the seed is all right is to have it tested. 
The botanical department of your state experiment 
station will do this work free, and you should send 
a sample to it. Buy clover seed only on sample, 
and have the sample tested before you accept the 
lot. The department will tell you the percentage 
of seeds that will grow, and the weed seeds that 
are contained. If you merely wish to make a germ- 
ination test, you can do it yourself. It is an in- 
teresting thing to do, even if the seed is tested at 



How to Grow Clover 115 

the experiment station. Here is the method recom- 
mended by the U. S. Department of Agriculture: 

From the red clover seed, separated from all im- 
purities, a counted number, as 100, should be taken 
just as they come. These seeds should be placed 
between layers of moistened cloth or paper or 
merely covered in a bed of sand or light soil. The 
-germinating receptacle should be held at the tem- 
perature of a living room, varying between sixty- 
five and eighty-five degrees Fahrenheit. Between 
the third and sixth days, the sprouting ability of the 
seeds should be shown. Seeds which at the close 
of a week are still hard, not yielding to the pres- 
sure of a knife blade, are "hard'' seeds, and are to 
be considered little better than dead seeds for sow- 
ing. It should be borne in mind that the sowing 
value of the seed is represented by the amount of 
true clover which will germinate with reasonable 
promptness. Thus, if four-fifths of a sample is 
pure clover and but three-fourths of this clover will 
sprout, then only three-fifths or sixty per cent of 
the original seed as offered will grow. The exam- 
ination of the seed is facilitated by the use of a 
magnifier ; one is easily obtainable for about fifty 
cents. 



116 Making Money on Farm Crops 

Yellow Trefoil in Red Clover Seed 

Red clover seed is adulterated with imported 
yellow trefoil, which resembles clover seed closely, 
and may easily escape detection. A small quantity 
of trefoil may appear incidentally in the clover seed. 
In cases of adulteration, thirty to forty per cent, or 
even fifty per cent, of the bulk may consist of tre- 
foil. 

The mixing of trefoil seed with better seed has 
practically all been done in this country. The devel- 
opment of pubHc interest in the matter of seed im- 
purities made within recent years, together with the 
publication of the names of dealers found to be 
handling adulterated seed, has resulted in a marked 
reduction in the importations of trefoil seed. A 
corresponding decrease in the quantity of red clover 
seed adulterated with trefoil has been observed. 
Tests of red clover seed made at the seed labora- 
tory of the U. S. Department of Agriculture show 
that trefoil is used as an adulterant in variable quan- 
tities, sometimes exceeding fifty per cent. In the 
majority of cases it has amounted to more than 
twenty per cent. The close similarity between tre- 
foil seed and red clover seed renders detection of 
the trefoil by the average purchaser improbable un- 
less sought especially with the aid of a magnifier. 



How to Grow Clover 117 

If all seed was bought on sample, and the samples 
tested, this little graft would be eliminated. 

Inoculation for Red Clover 

Clover must be supplied with the nitrogen gath- 
ering bacteria that store the nitrogen of the air on 
its roots. If these bacteria are not present, there 
will be no nitrogen stored, and the clover will not 
do well. Inoculation for clover may be brought 
about by the use of pure cultures of the bacteria. 
This method, however, is rather uncertain, and even 
a trained specialist has a high percentage of fail- 
ures. It also is possible to apply the bacteria by 
spreading the leaves and stems, but the value of 
this method is not equal to that of spreading soil, 
from a field that is growing clover well, on the field 
it is desired to inoculate. Add 300 pounds of dirt 
from a field where the clover is thrifty and has 
large tubercles on the roots. Be certain the soil 
does not dry out while it is being transferred, as this 
will injure the bacteria. Harrow the field when the 
dirt is applied, so it will be mixed with the soil in 
good shape. 

When to Cut Medium Red Clover 

Cut the clover for hay just after the stems have 
passed full bloom. At this stage, there is a maxi- 



118 



Making Money on Farm Crops 



mum amount of protein and dry matter present, 
the leaves are still intact, and the stems are green. 
If it is cut much sooner, the stems will be sappy 




' 






^^^^^^^^B 
^^^^^^^^^H 



md 




Clover on soil that has been limed. 

and hard to cure. However, where there is a large 
acreage of clover to cut, it is better to start just a 
little ahead of full bloom, for it is better to cut 
clover a little ahead of the ideal stage than too far 
past it. Clover loses its feeding value rapidly. 
That is where many farmers are making a mistake 
in growing this crop. Not only will the hay have 
a much higher feeding value if it is cut at the proper 
time, but the next crop will be larger. 

Handle the hay so it will reach the barn with 
the least possible loss of leaves, and the least ex- 
posure to the weather. The leaves, it should be 
remembered, are only about forty per cent of the 
crop, but they contain two-thirds of the protein, 
and that it what stockmen are after. 



How to Grow Clover 119 

Let the hay wilt well in the swath, and then rake 
it. If it is to be loaded with a hay loader or gath- 
ered by a sweep rake, it usually is left in these wind- 
rows until it is ready to put in the stack or mow. 
Where there is a heavy crop, a tedder should be 
used on the hay before it is raked. Where rain falls, 
the hay then must be handled in the best way possi- 
ble to get the maximum value that remains. And 
along this line remember this : There is more dan- 
ger of "mow-burning" hay from the moisture on it 
than from moisture in it. Be very careful that you 
do not put hay in the mow or stack until this moist- 
ure has evaporated. 

When the crop is raked before the leaves are 
dried out, the water in the stems will be drawn 
into the leaves and evaporated. If the leaves do 
get too dry they should be let lay until dew falls, 
and they then may be raked without a great loss. 

Storing the Hay 

In this century of the world's progress, there is 
little excuse for stacking clover hay. Money in- 
vested in hay barns or sheds will return a high 
rate of interest, for clover hay is valuable, and it 
does not turn water well when stacked. If it is 
necessary to stack the hay, make large stacks, for 
such stacks will keep the hay with a smaller per- 



120 Making Money on Farm Crops 

centage of loss than small stacks. Use a stacker. 
There are many stackers on the market that are 
good, and if you have a large acreage it will pay 
to get one. There are, however, some farms in 
rough sections where it is hard to use large stack- 
ers, because of the trouble in moving them. These 
farmers should use a pole stacker. Such a stacker 
may be constructed with little work or expense. 

How to Make a Pole Stacker 

In making a pole stacker, get a pole at least 
thirty feet long. This pole should be of timber 
that is light and strong. It is best to use cedar, 
but if you do use heavier timber, cut the tree two 
months before you will use it and put it up on sup- 
ports where it will dry. Get three wire ropes about 
forty-five feet long, for guy wires. The pole is 
revolved on a wooden block that serves as the base, 
and which has been sunk into the ground ten inches. 
A piece of steel should be placed on top of the 
block to make the pole turn easier, and the pole 
should have a piece of a rod of half-inch steel on 
the end that will go into the block several inches. 
This will hold the pole in place on the block. 

The guy wires are held on the top of the pole 
by a three-cornered piece of steel which has a place 
for wires to fasten in each corner. This steel should 



How to Grow Clover 



121 



have a hole in the center, and there must be a rod 
set in the upper end of the pole to go through this 
piece. The fork is attached to an arm bolted on 
the pole eight feet below the top. This arm should 
extend out from the pole twelve feet, with the outer 




This pole stacker is on runners, and is harder to move over 
rough ground than the one described. 

end slightly higher than the end at the pole. Fasten 
the outer end to the top by a logchain or wire rope. 
Dig the hole for the block, and place the pole in 
shape to raise, with two guy wires fastened to 
stakes on opposite sides of the pole. Then hitch a 



122 Making Money on Farm Crops 

team on the third wire, and raise the pole. It is 
best to have the team hitched on a wagon that has 
a good brake, and hitch the guy wire to the wagon, 
for this gives better control, if it is desired to stop 
the pole at any certain place, for the weight of the 
wagon will aid in holding it. 

While raising the pole, the arm on the pole will 
swing away from the team, and have a man take 
hold of the fork rope and hold it to prevent the 
team pulling the pole past center, and over on the 
wagon. There should be an extra stake driven into 
the ground so when the pole is pulled in position 
the end of the rope fastened to the fork can be 
pulled tight and fastened, and this will hold the 
pole until the guy wire which was used to pull the 
pole up can be taken from the wagon and fastened 
to a stake. While the pole is being raised, have a 
man stand with a crowbar at the base to prevent 
shoving it along the ground before it starts to rise. 
It is best to put the outer end of the pole up on 
supports, and place a stake under the guy wire you 
pull by before you start to pull. 

Always use wire for the guys. Rope is uncer- 
tain and is apt to break. Have the wires long 
enough, and be sure the stakes are driven well into 
the ground. Having had the pleasure (?) of stack- 
ing hay when the pole fell down, the author gives 



How to Grow Clover 123 

this advice from the heart. Use as light a fork as 
you can get, for lightness is much more important 
in the field than in a barn. Pull the forkful up 
with a horse, which a boy can lead. After the hay 
is in the air, swing it on the stack by revolving the 
pole with a crowbar run through a hole three feet 
from the ground. If the man who is handling the 
fork and the stacker will work together, they can 
place the hay on the stack where it is needed. They 
can build a big stack with but little more work than 
a small one. 

The stacking outfit that has been described is 
not ideal where there is a large acreage of hay to 
be stacked, and here a more elaborate machine 
should be used if it is decided not to put the hay 
in a barn. But on many small farms, the expense 
of such an outfit is not justified, and on others the 
land is so rough that they can not be moved easily. 
This outfit is especially adapted for such farms. 

After the stack is finished it should be covered 
with slough-grass or other coarse hay, which will 
turn the water better than clover hay. 

When Clover Hay is Placed in the Mow 

By far the best way is to place the hay under 
shelter. Just the reason for the continued stack- 
ing of a large part of the hay crop of the country 



124 



Making Money on Farm Crops 



is hard to determine in view of the well-known fact 
that when the saving in the quantity and quality 
of hay is considered, one can pay the interest and 
depreciation on money invested in barns, and get 
back the principal in four or five years, and all of 
the rest of the time the buildings stand they will 
return net profit. In constructing a hay shed or 
barn, do not make the mow wider than twenty- 
eight feet, and twenty-four feet is better. If it is 
wider, the labor of mowing away the hay is con- 
siderable. The barn can be made as long as is 








Mf^mmiMM 



It is much cheaper to load clover with power. 



needed. For use as a cattle or sheep barn, the 
method that commonly is used in the West is good. 
The hay in this type of barn comes to the ground, 
so there is no expense for a floor and heavy sup- 



How to Grow Clover 1&5 

porting timbers. The sheds for stock are placed 
around the mow. 

In placing the hay in the mow, do not pile it 
up more than is necessary. If you scatter the hay 
so it is not piled deeply, it will be possible to place 
it in the barn when it has a fairly high moisture 
content, and still it will come out in good shape. 
When the hay is placed in either the barn or the 
stack with too high a moisture content, there is con- 
siderable danger of spontaneous combustion, which 
will result in the whole proposition going up in 
smoke and flame. There is no doubt that this 
"sponifus combusts," as it sometimes is called, would 
be much more common, especially in mows, if there 
were air where the ckemical action is going on. The 
charring of hay in either barn or stack is a common 
thing. Of course, the remedy for this is curing the 
hay properly. There is no excuse for having the 
hay heat. Charred hay has almost no feeding value. 

As a feed for use other than for hay, J. M. West- 
gate, agronomist in charge of the clover investiga- 
tions in the bureau of plant industry, U. S. Depart- 
ment of Agriculture, has this to say : 

Red Clover for Ensilage 

"Red clover may be so readily utilized as pas- 
ture or hay that as a rule to ensile it usually will 



12G Making Money on Farm Crops 

not pay; but if inclement weather ensues at the time 
of cutting for hay it is often advisable to ensile if 
the facilities are at hand. To make an ideal ensi- 
lage the crop should be cut a little earlier than is 
customary when cutting for hay, but early cutting 
is usually impracticable if hay is preferred, as the 
crop will be left uncut several days awaiting favor- 
able haying weather. Although the uncured plants 
are heavy to handle, to ensile them presents the ad- 
vantage of retaining all their leaves. If sweet silage 
is desired, it should be dried for an equivalent of 
three hours of good haying weather before being 
put into the silo. If a feed cutter is available, the 
clover should be cut before putting it into the silo. 
The second crop of clover when ensiled is best if 
mixed with some of the grasses or with Indian 
corn. The pure red clover silage is apt to be slimy. 
The more thoroughly it is packed down in the silo 
when filling the less likely it is to spoil. 

Red Clover as a Soiling Crop 

"Where pasturing is impracticable, red clover 
is often used as a soiling crop — that is, it is cut and 
fed green to live stock. Use in this way reduces 
or eliminates the danger from bloating which attends 
the use of red clover as pasture. It makes a good 
early feed, is palatable, and from six to ten tons of 
green feed an acre is not an unusual yield. 



How to Grow Clover 127 

Red Clover for Pasture 

"Red clover is a most excellent pasture for all 
stock, especially when they are growing. For pigs, 
it should be supplemented with a small grain ra- 
tion, as this will induce much more rapid gains. 
The early growth of red clover is less nutritious 
pound for pound than when nearing or at the bloom- 
ing stage, since in the early stages of growth it is 
high in moisture content, thus requiring the ani- 
mals to eat relatively larger quantities. Further- 
more, close, early pasturing is injurious to the stand 
of clover. 

"Ordinarily, red clover will furnish some pasture 
during the first fall after spring seeding. It should 
not be too closely grazed at this time, for the suc- 
ceeding season's hay crop may be decreased. The 
plants should be allowed to go into the winter with 
some growth upon the crowns to prevent their win- 
ter-killing, and also to enable them to store up ma- 
terial in their roots for an early, vigorous growth 
the following spring. 

Bloating of Animals on Clover 

"When pasturing cattle or sheep on red clover, 
care must be taken not to pasture when the animals 
are very hungry, especially when the red clover is 
young and succulent or when wet with dew or rain, 



128 



Making Money on Farm Crops 



as bloating may result. Should bloating occur, sev- 
eral remedies are usually at hand which will afford 




■mm 

Herefords on a clover pasture in Missouri. 

material relief. A large bit, the diameter of a pitch- 
fork handle, may be tied in the mouth ; a piece of 
rubber tubing may be passed through the mouth to 
the first stomach ; or, as a last resort, the animal 
may be tapped to allow the escape of gas. For this 
purpose a trocar, such as is used by veterinary sur- 
geons, is best ; but in the absence of this a small- 
bladed knife may be used to make the incision about 
six inches in front of and slightly below the left hip 
bone. A straw or quill may be used to permit the 



How to Grow Clover 129 

escape of gas. Care should be taken not to allow 
the straw or quill to work down out of sight into 
the incision." 

Red Clover as a Feed 

All farm animals require protein in some form 
in order to make their best growth or to produce 
the best results either in the form of milk and but- 
ter, as in the case of dairy stock, or as eggs, in the 
case of poultry. The ordinary roughage, such as 
corn stover and ordinary grass hay, is low in the 
necessary protein. On many farms this protein is 
supplied by feeding such concentrates as bran, oil 
meal, or cottonseed meal ; but these concentrates 
are expensive and on most farms should be in large 
measure replaced by leguminous forage crops, such 
as red clover, which can be grown on the place. 

Red clover is one of the most highly nutritious 
forage plants, either in the green state or cured as 
hay. This table shows the results of experiments 
to determine the relative values of several kinds of 
feeds. Here is the digestible nutrients in and the 
feeding value of red clover and other forage crops : 



130 



Making Money on Farm Crops 



DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS IN AND FEEDINl. 

VALUE OF RED CLOVER AND 

OTHER FORAGE CROPS. 





m 
id 

+J o 
d ft 


Digestible nutrients in 
100 pounds. 


c0 
3 


KIND OF FORAGE. 


£ 
°3 

o 


05 

5£ 


-t-> 

<D TO ^^, 


bo 
g 

<D O 
(D +J 


Fresh clover 

Fresh alfalfa 

Clover hay 

Alfalfa hay 

Timothy hay 

Cowpea hay 

Wheat bran 

Shelled corn 


lbs. 
29.2 

28.2 
84.7 
91.6 
86.8 
89.3 
88.1 
89.1 


lbs. 
2.9 
3.9 
6.8 

11.0 
2.8 

10.8 

12.2 
7.9 


lbs. 
14.8 
12.7 
35.8 
39.6 
43.4 
38.6 
39.2 
66.7 


lbs. 
0.7 
0.5 
1.7 
1.2 
1.4 
1.1 
2.7 
4.3 


$ 5.96 
7.00 
14.12 
20.16 
9.64 
19.76 
22.07 
20.16 



Clover for Seed 

There is considerable profit in growing- the seed 
of this crop over large areas where it is not now 
grown. In order to make much success, every ef- 
fort should be made to retard the production of the 
largest vegetable growth, as the conditions which 
favor just an average growth of the stems also 
favor maximum seed production. When the growth 
of clover is too rank, the crop will lodge, and there 
will be a light production of seed. The second 
crop is the one that usually is left for seed, and in 
many localities it will pay to cut the crop before 
full bloom, for the seed crop generally is of more 
value than the hay crop, and if the production of 



How to Grow Clover 131 

seed can be increased materially, as it usually can, 
by cutting earlier than at the full bloom, it will pay. 
The following has been condensed, in part, from 
a bulletin of the bureau of plant industry: The 
time of cutting the first crop for hay has a marked 
effect on the second crop, which is the one usually 
allowed to stand for seed. As already indicated, 
the best hay is produced when the crop is cut a 
little past full bloom ; but this may or may not be 
the best time within a given section to cut the first 
crop, if due consideration is given to the produc- 
tion of maximum yields of seed where seed is rela- 
tively more important than the difference of a few 
days in the time of cutting the hay crop. For the 
sake of the succeeding seed crop, the first cutting 
for hay should be made a little before full bloom 
rather than after the first blossoms have begun to 
turn brown. As a specific instance it may be cited 
that mowing was commenced on one side of a 40- 
acre clover field when the plants were two-thirds 
in bloom. Several days were required to cut the 
field and the last of the clover was not cut until the 
plants were just past full bloom. The effect of this 
time of cutting on the seed crop was remarkable, 
in that the early cutting induced the second crop 
to produce seed at the rate of five bushels an acre, 
whereas the cutting a week later resulted in a seed 



132 Making Money on Farm Crops 

yield of only two bushels. The difference in the 
value of the preceding hay crop by reason of the 
early cutting on the one side was probably not 
more than 20 per cent, while its increase of the yield 
of seed was more than 100 per cent. 

A number of conditions may arise which make 
it inadvisable to attempt to produce a full crop of 
hay if it is desired to produce a maximum crop of 
seed. 

To Destroy Clover Insects 

In the Ohio Valley States the ravages of insect 
enemies may be materially checked by pasturing 
clover or even by clipping it considerably earlier 
than is demanded by the hay crop, as this process 
tends to destroy insect enemies which would other- 
wise be developing to work havoc in the succeeding 
seed crop. In the northern portion of the northern 
tier of states, the short growing season will not 
usually permit the first crop to reach full bloom 
and still allow time for the maturing of a seed crop. 
For this reason, it is usually necessary to pasture 
the crop or cut it earlier than would otherwise be 
necessary. 

If a full cutting of the first crop of clover is 
made for hay and the second left for seed, the seed 
yield is likely to be disappointing on account of the 



How to Grow Clover 133 

lack of suitable growing weather for the seed crop. 
In the latitude of northern Michigan, the clover 
may be pastured until June 18 or 20 in normal sea- 
sons, and then be allowed to produce seed. If stock 
for pasturing is not available, the clover may be 
clipped back about the middle of June, with equally 
good results. Even when the land is pastured, it 
is a good practice to run the mower over the field 
after the stock is removed, to clip back any bunches 
which may be left by the stock. In this way, the 
seed crop will mature much more evenly over the 
entire field. The reasons for the increase of the 
seed yield due to clipping or pasturing back are not 
well understood. It is alleged that this brings the 
setting of the seed at a time when the necessary 
dry weather is apt to be prevalent. Another reason 
is the avoiding of injurious insects which would be 
present if the clover had matured a few weeks later. 

Cutting for Seed 

Red clover should be cut for seed when the 
heads have turned dark brown, and most of the 
seeds have reached the dough stage. If the heads 
are left much longer, they become brittle, and are 
apt to break off in harvesting. If you cut the crop 
with a mowing machine, use a buncher attachment 
fastened on the cutter-bar. An old-fashioned, self- 



334 Making Money on Farm Crops 

rake reaper is a good thing to cut the crop with, 
and probably is as satisfactory an implement as can 
be used. It usually will require at least four days, 
even if the weather is favorable, to cure the crop 
so it will be ready to hull. 

A huller should be used to separate the straw, 
for the ordinary threshing machine will not do a 
good job. A huller is not an expensive proposition, 
and a man who owns a threshing machine usually 
is willing to buy one and hull the clover, after the 
rest of the season's threshing rush is over, if there 
is a large enough acreage. All chaff and straw 
usually contain some seed, even if the best methods, 
have been used in handling them, and they profit- 
ably can be spread on clover fields where the stand 
is thin. 

Utilization of Clover Straw 

The clover straw after the seed has been re- 
moved is too coarse and unpalatable to be of much 
value as feed, though sheep and cattle will pick it 
over during the winter. The chaff may be used as 
an absorbent of liquid in stables. If the clover is 
cut for seed and cured without having been rained 
upon, the straw has some feeding value, but such 
instances are unusual. 



How to Grow Clover 135 



Enemies of Red Clover 



The principal enemies of red clover are insects, 
fungous diseases, and weeds. Occasionally, bur- 
rowing rodents, such as mice and gophers, do some 
damage, usually not at all serious. Of the enemies 
just mentioned, the insect pests are usually more 
troublesome than either fungous diseases or weeds. 

Red clover is affected by a number of insects 
which at one time or another during its existence 
tend to destroy the life of the plant. Many insects 
feed to a greater or less extent on red clover, but 
comparatively few do enough material harm to 
affect seriously the production of clover over ex- 
tended areas. 

The Clover Root-Borer 

For more than thirty years the clover root-borer 
has done an immense amount of damage in the 
clover-producing states east of the Mississippi river. 
This insect is especially destructive in Ohio, Indiana 
and southern Michigan. At one time this pest 
threatened the entire clover-growing industry of 
Michigan. The beetle has a hard body about one- 
sixth of an inch in length, and its color is dark 
brown. It is perhaps best recognized by the effect 
of the larvae on the roots of the plant. These in- 
sects do not materially damage the stand of ciover 



136 Making Money on Farm Crops 

until the summer of the second year, because the 
roots must reach considerable size before they are 
capable of harboring the beetles. It is the larvae 
rather than the adult insects which work the actual 
destruction of the roots of the red clover. The only 
preventive measure yet tried is to turn down the 
clover stubble as soon as the hay crop is removed. 
At this time, the root-borers are in an immature 
stage and on being deprived of their food they per- 
ish, as they can not migrate. If this plowing is 
delayed until later in the fall, the larvae will have 
developed to the pupae and adults, and the plow- 
ing will have little effect on them. 

Clover Hay Worm 

The clover hay worm is a common pest in almost 
all parts of the country, and it is becoming more 
common. It works on hay in either the stack or 
the mow. It has been gradually spreading through 
the West in the last few years, and is much more 
common than it was a few years ago. Always clean 
the leaves out of the mow before putting in new 
hay, and never stack clover or alfalfa hay on old 
stack bottoms. If these preventative remedies are 
followed, there is little danger from the attacks of 
this insect. 



How to Grow Clover 137 

Fungous Diseases of Red Clover 

All the clovers are comparatively free from the 
plant diseases which so frequently prove disastrous 
to other crops ; but in certain sections some of these 
diseases have proved serious, even to the practical 
elimination of successful stands. 

A number of diseases attack principally the 
leaves of the red clover plant, forming large or 
small spots of various appearances. The clover 
leaf-spot appears as a multitude of small black 
specks on the leaves. The clover rust shows as 
small reddish-brown spots on the leaves. The pow- 
dery mildew develops a whitish mass somewhat 
like a cobweb across the surface of the leaves, and 
close inspection shows the presence of small black 
bodies within the meshes. None of these leaf dis- 
eases is usually very serious, and when the plants 
are growing vigorously they are usually able to 
thrive in spite of the presence of fungous diseases. 

How About Mammoth Clover? 

Mammoth clover is similar to the medium vari- 
ety in many ways. It has, however, a larger and 
coarser habit of growth, but it is not so erect. It 
should be cut promptly, or the plants will become 
woody. In general, the hay is more bulky than that 
furnished by medium red clover, and it usually is 



138 



Making Money on Farm Crops 



not quite so well relished by animals. It blooms 
later, and therefore it can be cut with greater ease 
on average corn-belt farms. It usually does not 
produce an important second crop. It has more 
value for improving the soil, for the roots go deeper. 




Farm improvements pay if they are handled in an efficient 
manner. 

and it furnishes more green material for plowing 
under, when it is desired to use the crop in this 
way. The crop will grow better where the mois- 
ture is deficient and where there is an excessive 
amount of sand than will medium red clover. 



Alsike Clover 

Where the land is excessively wet, there can be 
a larger yield of this clover obtained than with 



How to Grow Clover 139 

either the medium red or the mammoth, but on 
average land, where these crops will do well, they 
are the crops to grow. 

White Clover for Pasture 

White clover is a perennial, and the stems creep 
along on the ground, and take root at the joints, 
so the plants are multiplied in this manner as well 
as by seed. It is especially adapted to growing in 
mixtures for pasture, and in some places as a pas- 
ture crop without mixture. The flowers are numer- 
ous, especially when wet weather is the rule about 
the time the plants are flowering. They are white, 
and tinted with a delicate rose color. 

White clover is hardy. It comes out from under 
the snow with a green tint, and it is not readily 
injured by the first frosts of autumn. While it 
starts in the spring about the time the first frosts 
are off the land, growth is not rapid until the warm 
spring rains add the moisture that is necessary to 
produce maximum yields. After this growth be- 
gins, the flowers start. The blooming period can 
be prolonged by heavy grazing. Under average 
conditions, such as are found when the crop is be- 
ing pastured heavily, it continues to bloom and 
form seeds well along in the summer. 

The methods of seedbed preparation for this 



140 



Making Money on Farm Crops 



crop are much the same as for red clover. It is a 
pasture # crop, and therefore it is not a rotation crop. 
Considerable nitrogen is added to the soil by the 
bacteria that fix the nitrogen of the air on the roots, 




A "toe-hold" tractor. 

but it is not the equal in this respect to red clover. 
It is especially adapted to growing in mixtures for 
lawns, for when it is grown with bluegrass, for ex- 
ample, it adds nitrogen to the soil that will aid 
greatly in keeping the lawn in good condition. 



CHAPTER V. 
COWPEAS AS A ROTATION CROP 



CHAPTER V. 
COWPEAS AS A ROTATION CROP 

Preparation of the Soil 
Cultivation of Cowpeas 
Harvesting Cowpeas 
Harvesting Cowpeas for Seed 
Cowpeas as a Catch-Crop 
Cowpeas for Pasture 
The Feeding Value of Cowpeas 
Cowpeas for Silage 
Varieties of Cowpeas 



CHAPTER V. 

COWPEAS AS A ROTATION CROP 

Cowpeas grow in a wonderful variety of places 
and under many conditions. This crop is especially 
adapted to poor soils, and for soils of medium fer- 
tility. On very rich land, there is an excessive 
growth of vine that is hard to cure, and does not 
produce the highest quality of hay after it is cured. 
It often is possible to grow cowpeas on poor, heavy 
land where legumes like clover and alfalfa will not 
grow at all. This is true on many fields in the 
hardpan section of southeastern Kansas. The crop 
is a rank feeder, and is able to extract plant food 
that it is impossible for other crops to get. An- 
other advantage is that is usually does not require 
all the effort that frequently is necessary to inocu- 
late the soil for alfalfa and clover. Whether the 
bacteria that fix nitrogen on the roots of cowpeas 
always are present in land, or whether they adhere 
to the seeds is not known, but it is not necessary 
to inoculate for the crop in any case. Tubercles 
will be found the first year the crop is grown on 
new land. 



144 



Making Money on Farm Crops 



Preparation of the Soil 

Prepare the seedbed for cowpeas carefully. Too 
often, cowpeas are just "scratched in," for they 
must be planted in the late spring when there 
usually is a rush to get other farm work done, and 
they frequently are neglected.. The land should be 





■:;■.■■■■■ ■-• 

General farmers would make more money from their crops if they 
Were as careful with the cultivation as fruit farmers. 

just as well prepared as for corn. If fall plowing 
will do in your section, plow the field then, and 
disk it in the spring, just before the crop is planted. 
In any case, be sure the field is free from weeds 
at the time the seed is sown, so the cowpeas will 
have an equal chance with them. 

Whether the seed shall be drilled in thickly, or 
whether less seed shall be drilled and the plants 



Cowpeas as a Rotation Crop 145 

cultivated, is a question that often is hard to decide. 
Much less seed is required where the field is to be 
cultivated, and the yields frequently are superior 
to where more seed is planted, and the plants are 
left to shift for themselves. Probably it usually 
will pay to cultivate cowpeas where the work is 
arranged so the crop can be cultivated when it 
needs it. If it cannot, the seed should be drilled 
thickly, and no effort made to cultivate. Too often, 
cowpeas that are to be cultivated are neglected in 
the rush of the summer's work, and where this is 
the case, weeds come up in the ground that is not 
occupied. This would not happen if the seed had 
been planted thicker. So, if you have time to cul- 
tivate the crop, plant from three to four gallons of 
seed to the acre. If the crop is not to be culti- 
vated, sow from four to five pecks. Plant the crop 
with either a corn planter, equipped with special 
plates for sowing cowpeas, or with a wb-eat drill, 
with some of the holes stopped. If the machinery 
is properly adjusted, the seeds may be planted 
without many being split. The ordinary width of 
a corn planter, three feet six or eight inches, is too 
wide to plant cowpeas. Thirty inches is about right, 
and this width can be obtained by stopping up 
some of the holes in a grain drill. Where the seed 



146 Making Money on Farm Crops 

is drilled with a corn planter, and the crop is not 
to be cultivated, straddle the rows. 

Cultivation of Cowpeas 

If the ground is thoroughly warmed, and the 
seed never should be sown until the ground is in 
this condition, the plants will start rapidly. If a rain 
falls soon after the crop is sown, it may be neces- 
sary to break the crust with a harrow, to let the 
young plants through. Never use a harrow after 
the plants have come up, for they are tender, and 
easily broken. And bear that in mind when you 
are cultivating the crop, too. The plants must be 
handled carefully, or they will be broken off. It is 
possible, under many conditions, to use the weeder 
or harrow on young corn with considerable profit, 
but it is not possible with cowpeas. The crop 
should be large enough to cultivate in from 15 to 
20 days after it is planted. 

Disk cultivators are not adapted to cultivating 
this crop. Shovel cultivators are perhaps best. 
About three cultivations usually should be given. 
If the plants are intended for seed production, cul- 
tivate just before blooming-, and then quit. Noth- 
ing is to be gained by later stirring of the land, for 
it merely increases vineing that does not aid in 
seed production. 



Cowpeas as a Rotation Crop 147 

Harvesting Cowpeas 

Perhaps most of this crop still is cut with mow- 
ing machines, and this is the most practicable way, 
too, for a man who has a small acreage. For those 
who have a large acreage, it would be better to buy 
some of the special types of pea harvesters. There 
are several that are good, and they are not expen- 
sive. This crop ripens rather unevenly, so it can- 
not be cut for any purpose when all the plants are 
at the right stage of maturity. The crop should be 
cut for hay when the pods are fairly well developed, 
and some of the leaves are turning brown. This 
crop is one of the most difficult of the legumes to 
cure properly. The stems are so large and they 
contain such a great amount of moisture that to 
get the hay in proper condition without a great loss 
of leaves is a serious problem. 

Rake the hay after the plants have become well 
wilted, but do not allow the leaves to become cooked. 
Let them lay in the windrow for about a day, and 
then shock them in small shocks. Then comes the 
curing process. Here is where most growers make 
their great mistake. To a man who is used to 
quick-curing timothy or prairie hay, it seems to 
take an immensely long time for the stems to get 
down to the proper moisture content for storing, 
and he almost always will stack or put cowpea hay 



148 Making Money on Farm Crops 

in the mow too green, for the first few times. The 
stems dry slowly, and frequently it takes a week 
or more of good weather to cure the hay properly. 
Be certain these stems are well cured before you 
move the shocks, and then you had better wait a 
day or two for good measure, for it is probable that 
you have missed it, especially if this is the first 
time you have grown the crop. 

This is one crop that it is better to stack in 
small stacks, if you do not have room for it in sheds. 
Of course, it. will keep better, if it is well cured, in 
large stacks, but small stacks always are the safest 
because of this danger from heating. Cover the 
tops with slough grass when they are finished. If 
the hay is stored in a mow, it should be spread out 
as much as possible, for cowpea hay that is piled 
up much usually will mow-burn. 

Harvesting Cowpeas for Seed 

One of the things that is hard to understand is 
why more farmers do not grow cowpeas for seed. 
The price has been high for years, and it probably 
will continue high, as the demand for seed is in- 
creasing. The peas must be threshed on a special 
thresher, it is true, as ordinary threshing machines 
will break them badly. These machines do not cost 
very much, and they are easy to run. Cowpea seed 



Cowpeas as a Rotation Crop 149 

production usually is profitable, and the limits of 
the area of seed production may easily be extended 
northward from where they now are. 

The pods ripen unevenly, and when the field 
has reached the best stage for cutting-, there still 
will be some of the plants that have green pods. 
The only rule to go by is to pick the time at which 
most of the pods are ripe, and then cut the crop. 

The weevil gets into cowpea seed quite badly, 
sometimes, and considerable care must be used in 
regard to this pest, both when one is storing seed 
and when purchasing seed. The weevil is very easy 
to kill, by fumigation, so all that is needed is a little 




Jersey cow with a record of 1,031 pounds of butter in one year. 



150 Making Money on Farm Crops 

care in handling the seed. If the weevil bothers, 
fumigate with carbon bisulphide at the rate of one 
pound to every 600 cubic feet of space. When this 
fumigation is done, place the seed in a bin as near 
air-tight as possible, so there will not be a great 
loss of gas. Merely place the material in a shallow 
dish on the cowpeas ; it is heavier than air, and it 
will evaporate and sink into the seed, and kill the 
insects. If a canvas cover is thrown over the seed, 
it will hold the gas into the seed better. 

Cowpeas as a Catch-Crop. 

Cowpeas can be used as a catch-crop after wheat 
in localities not too far north. One method of 
seeding that has been used at the Kansas station 
with considerable success is to drill cowpeas after 
the wheat is cut, and to have the drill follow the 
binder. This method is all right, if the soil is not 
too heavy, and if there is plenty of moisture in the 
ground, so the seed will germinate and get started 
properly. The only reason for planting cowpeas at 
this time is to save the week or more that must 
elapse until the shocks are removed from the field. 
Usually, there is enough time to plant the crop 
after that, however. 

When the cowpeas are plowed under as a green- 
manure crop, they add a great deal of humus and 



Cowpeas as a Rotation Crop 151 

nitrogen to the land. One of the important things 
about their use as a green-manure crop is this: 
Cowpeas do not cause a great formation of acid in 
the land, as does cane, for example, and therefore it 
is a much better crop to use for this purpose, espe- 
cially in non-limestone sections. But even if the 
crop is harvested for hay, there is a considerable 
amount of nitrogen added to the soil. The nodules 
on the roots of cowpeas usually are large. 

Cowpeas for Pasture 

On account of the fact that cowpea stems are 
easily broken and that the crop does not form a sod, 
it is not naturally a pasture crop, but it can be used 
for this purpose, sometimes. Take, for example, 
as a hog feed to aid other hog pastures, when they 
are cut short by the summer's heat, it has consid- 
erable value. And it also can be used to supple- 
ment other pastures at that time, if considerable 
care is used in turning the animals in on the crop. 
Usually, however, hogs are the only farm animals 
it will pay to pasture on cowpeas. 

In semi-arid sections, it often is possible to raise 
cowpeas where most other common legumes fail. 
There should be a great extension of the acreage in 
wheat sections. 



152 



Making Money on Farm Crops 



In all sections where cowpeas will grow well, 
they produce profits that rank up well with all 
standard farm crops, and exceed them in many 




Holstein cows can make profitable use of great quantities of 
roughage. 

cases. The price of seed ranges high, and that is 
about the only thing that is preventing a great ex- 
tension of the growth of this crop. 



The Feeding Value of Cowpeas 

Cowpea hay compares favorably with alfalfa 
hay, when it has been cured properly. It is espe- 
cially valuable as a feed for dairy cattle, and for 
young animals. If an annual leguminous crop is to 
be grown, cowpeas should be the crop, where they 
will do well. 



Cowpeas as a Rotation Crop 153 

Cowpeas for Silage 

This crop has not been used much for silage in 
the North, but its use is more general in the South. 
There is a field for the extension of the use of this 
crop for the silo. When the cowpeas are to be put 
in a silo, the crop should be allowed to become 
nearly ripe, and then be handled immediately on 
cutting, to prevent shelling and loss of leaves. 

It is a common and successful practice in the 
South to plant cowpeas in corn rows at the last cul- 
tivation, and cut the entire crop for the silo, thus 
furnishing a more balanced ration than does corn 
silage alone. The weight of the corn in this mix- 
ture will furnish sufficient pressure to prevent an 
excessive loss in the cowpeas. Under such condi- 
tions, the yield of forage will be considerably in- 
creased, and the quality of the silage will be im- 
proved. 

The Maryland Experiment Station reports as 
follows the results of investigations regarding cow- 
pea silage: 

"In making silage, the peas should be cut at the 
same stage as for hay. They are cut with a mow- 
ing machine, and are raked up and hauled in at 
once and may be put in the silo without cutting, 
but, of course, the crop will take up less space and 
pack closer if it is run through a cutter. Cowpeas 



154 Making Money on Farm Crops 

may be put into the silo with corn. For this pur- 
pose, it is well to run them through the cutter, so 
they will be mixed about one-third peas and two- 




■ ; :' : "" ; -y- 







V; : ; V ': 



While cowpeas usually is used for hay, the crop is 
placed in silos with good results in some sections. 

thirds corn. Cowpeas should yield from six to ten 
tons of silage an acre. Cowpea silage is quite dif- 
ferent in appearance from corn silage. It becomes 



Cowpeas as a Rotation Crop 155 

darker, and does not have quite so pleasant an odor. 
It contains less acid than corn silage." 

Varieties of Cowpeas 

The Kansas Station has carried on tests of the 
yields of cowpeas for many years, and the follow- 
ing table gives the average results obtained for a 
series of years : 

Days to Average acre yield 

Variety Mature Grain Hay 

Bu. Tons. 

Mount Olive 114 10.73 2.68 

Whippoorwill Ill 11.46 2.63 

Gray Goose or Taylor 113 11.86 2.47 

Hammond's Black 114 11.13 2.23 

Black Eye Ill 12.71 2.17 

New Era 107 12.44 2.14 

Michigan Favorite 107 11.23 2.10 

Warren's New Hybrid 107 13.46 2.06 

Old Man's 108 11.49 2.03 

White Giant 108 10.81 1.95 

Clay 108 10.86 1.94 

barren's Extra Early 107 10.80 1.87 

These results would hold good, of course, only 
for the Kansas section. The relative order would 
tend to change from place to place, to a certain 
extent. 



CHAPTER VI. 
CORN GROWING FOR PROFIT 



CHAPTER VI. 
CORN GROWING FOR PROFIT 

Select Your Seed Carefully 

Test Every Ear 

Soils for Corn 

Plow the Land in the Fall 

The Rate of Planting 

Variety Names Are Not Certain 

The Cultivation of Corn 

Will it Pay to Build a Silo? 

Kind of Silo to Build 

Silos Are Not Expensive 

Capacities of Silos 

Feeding Value of Silage 

In Regard to Shredding Stover 

The Cost of Shredding 

Shrinkage of Corn 

The Weight of a Bushel of Corn 

Prevention of the Smut of Corn 

Insect Enemies of Corn 

How to Judge Corn 



CHAPTER VI. 

CORN GROWING FOR PROFIT 

Corn — or maize if you prefer to call it that — is 
the most important crop of the United States. In 
the Middle West it is about the only crop grown 
in some sections. Its influence on animal types 
has been remarkable, and is responsible for lard 
hogs. These were developed and now are grown 
because they are adapted to the peculiar conditions 
of the corn belt. Corn is high in carbohydrates, 
and a rotation high in this material has developed 
the lard hogs until they are markedly unlike their 
ancestors. 

Select Your Seed Carefully 

There has been more foolish contention on one 
hand and more almost criminal neglect on the 
other, in regard to the selection of seed corn than 
in regard to any other thing in farming, in recent 
years. What is needed is the selection of corn on 
a practicable, scientific basis ; which means the dis- 
carding of crib selection on one hand and all this 
rot about "bloodlines" on the other. Many farm 
leaders have lectured in deeply technical terms 



160 Making Money on Farm Crops 

about elaborate methods of field seed corn selec- 
tion, with the result that crib selection still is the 
prevailing method on an appallingly large number 
of farms. 

It is a simple and easy matter to gather and 
properly care for seed corn, all contentions of 
dreamy scientists to the contrary. There is no need 
for freakish concern over minor details. All that 
is needed is the selection of good ears from good 
stalks, and then these ears must be cared for so 
they will germinate well. The best way to select 
seed corn is to go into the fields several weeks be- 
fore you shuck corn, select the ears, and place them 
in a sack. Some men leave part of the husks on 
the ear, but this is not necessary unless it is de- 
sired to hang these ears up by the husks. 

Many farmers use a simpler method, and select 
the ears at husking time, having a box on the wagon 
in which they throw the ears as soon as they are 
husked. Usually good results may be obtained with 
this method ; but as cold weather will seriously in- 
jure the seed if it contains a high percentage of 
water, it is best to select the ears in the field ear- 
lier, so the water content may be lowered before 
cold weather arrives. But no matter what method 
is used, consider the stalk on which the ear grew. 
If the stalk is not normal, or if the ear is improp- 



162 Making Money on Farm Crops 

erly placed, do not save the ear, no matter how 
good it may be. 

Cure the seed promptly after it is gathered. No 
temperatures known in the corn belt will injure 
seed corn that is properly cured and stored, and yet 
this is one of the main causes of poor stands. As 
soon as the ears are gathered, place them in drying 
racks so the air will circulate around them readily. 
It does not matter where these racks are placed, 
so long as they are under shelter. It formerly was 
the common practice to store the ears in the attics 
of farm homes, and when the mice are kept away 
from the seed, this method has not been improved. 
Farmers with several hundred acres of land planted 
to corn can afford to have a seed house, but this is 
not essential for those who have smaller acreages. 
And the type of rack is not especially important, 
just so the ears are stored so they will dry out well. 

Test Every Ear 

About twice as much corn should be selected as 
will be needed, and every ear should be tested. 
Discard the poor ears. There are many good ways 
to test seed corn. The most essential things are 
that the temperature be kept at about 80 degrees 
F., and that the seed be kept moist. Sand is a good 
medium in which to germinate seed corn. If it is 



Corn Growing for Profit 



163 



desired to test many ears, take a small, shallow box, 
and divide it into compartments with wires. A box 
with ten wires strung both ways, thus dividing the 




Preparing for the county corn contest. 



164 Making Money on Farm Crops 

box into 100 compartments, is a good size. Remove 
six kernels from every ear, and then place the ears, 
for ready reference, in just the same position in 
which the compartments containing the kernels are. 
Select two kernels from the tip, two from the mid- 
dle and two from the butt of each ear. Keep at the 
proper temperature, and if more of the kernels than 
one fail to germinate at the end of five days, the 
ear should not be used for seed. 

This testing of seed is one of the most important 
things in the whole seed corn proposition Many 
fields, even in the best sections of the corn belt, 
often do not have more than 80 per cent of a stand, 
and sometimes the stand is much poorer than this. 
A large acreage always is replanted every spring, at 
a considerable cost both in labor and often in re- 
duced yields, when this loss could have been pre- 
vented, if the seed had been tested and the poor 
ears discarded. Testing seed is the only way to 
tell whether it will germinate well. It is impossi- 
ble to tell whether a kernel will grow by looking 
at it — yes, that statement will be disputed, but it 
is a fact. If you do not test seed, it is certain you 
will plant many ears that will not germinate well. 
The proper way is to find these ears, so they need 
not be planted. 



Corn Growing for Profit 165 

Soils for Corn 

Rich, deep loam soils are especially adapted to 
corn, but the plant will produce profitable crops on 
a great range of land. Good drainage is essential, 
for the plant cannot grow where the soil contains 
much gravity water. The nitrogen content of the 
land is of great importance, for on most fields of 
this country, nitrogen is the limiting element in the 




On steep slopes water aids in soil formation the fastest. 

yield. Usually the yield is determined by the nitro- 
gen content. That is why frequent introduction of 
leguminous crops in rotations with corn is of great 
importance. Keep up the nitrogen supply. 

Corn is not especially "hard'' on land. It re- 
moves a comparatively small amount of mineral 



166 Making Money on Farm Crops 

matter from the soil, the principal element being 
phosphorus. But just because the crop does not 
reduce soil fertility is no sign it should be grown 
long without a change as is the case in many parts 
of the West. Rotate the land properly, and do not 
grow corn on the same h.nd more than two years 
in succession. In many parts of the West, corn is 
grown on fields without change, for many years. 
The author knows of fields in Kansas that have 
been planted to corn every season for the last thirty 
years, but still the owners go gamely ahead and 
plant corn every spring, even if the yields give re- 
turns that are below the tost of production. 

On account of the great need of available nitro- 
gen for this crop, it usually should be grown as the 
first crop on land after the nitrogen-supplying crop 
has been grown. It is the common practice to plant 
corn after a crop of alfalfa or clover has been plowed 
under. It is impossible to get too much nitrogen, 
under ordinary field conditions, for corn. Wheat 
easily may be injured by too much nitrogen, which 
causes the grain to lodge. 

Plow the Land in the Fall 

Plow all the land for corn in the fall that is pos- 
sible, unless fall plowing is not advisable in your 
section. Fall plowing will increase the supply of 



Corn Growing for Profit 167 

available plant food, conserve moisture, and more 
important yet, it will allow the cold and wet weather 
to destroy insects, and their eggs. This last is of 
much greater importance than most corn growers 
are willing to admit. Fall plowing will destroy the 
protection the insects and the eggs have, and they 
will be destroyed. Always remember this about 
the insects that attack corn, and most other crop 
insects for that matter: The best way to aid in 
controlling them is by a good rotation of crops, and 
by fall plowing. 

Most land that is to be planted to corn is not 
plowed deep enough. On account of lack of avail- 
able power, there always is the temptation to run 
the plow much more shallow than it should be run 
when one is preparing the soil for this crop. In 
comparison with wheat and oats, the seedbed should 
be prepared deeply. While the proper depth will 
vary with the soil, subsoil, season, climate and pre- 
vious crop, a good depth for plowing is six inches 
and frequently deeper. When the ground is plowed 
at a lesser depth, it is probable the yield will be 
reduced. Plow deep for this crop, in the fall and 
winter when the teams can stand the work well. 

The corn crop of this country will be increased 
markedly when power plowing outfits are used to 
a greater extent in small fields. When machine 



168 



Making Money on Farm Crops 



power is used, farmers always are more willing to 
put the plow into the soil deeper than when horses 
are producing the power. 

Subsoiling for corn has been tried by a great 
many growers, without much results. In some 



-,.,.,.•:•■ ■■-..W- 







cases, there has been a small increase in yield, in 
others a small decrease, but in no case has the 
change been of any great importance. In general, 
the results have indicated it does not pay to subsoil 
for corn. 



Corn Growing for Profit 169 

Preparing the Ground After Plowing 

Fall plowed land should be left until the next 
spring without any further work, as this will allow 
it to become weathered, and to absorb moisture. 
But in the spring, the land should be harrowed 
soon after it is plowed. When the soil is dry, the 
harrow should be used on the ground that has just 
been plowed, at the close of every half-day. In 
extreme cases, it may be necessary to hitch to the 
harrow and break up the clods at the middle of a 
half-day's work. This breaking up of the soil is 
essential, for the plant food in clods can not be used. 
Crush them and give the corn a chance. A deep 
seed-bed, with the clods pulverized, should be the 
ideal of ever grower. 

Then comes the planting. Usually, the differ- 
ence in yield between surface planted and listed 
corn is not very great. But under some conditions, 
such as on the sandy, prairie soils of western Kan- 
sas, listed corn will give the best returns. As an 
average of the tests at the Kansas Station, on the 
farm at Manhattan, there has been a difference of 
about two bushels in favor of listed corn. On the 
other hand, on thin, heavy soils, top planting often 
will give the best returns. How to plant corn will 
ever be the individual problem of farmers. 

The depth of corn roots is not materially af- 



170 Making Money on Farm Crops 

fected by the depth of planting-. Therefore nothing- 
is gained by deep planting - , and if the seed is planted 
too deeply, much of the energy of the plant must 
be exhausted before it comes up. If the seedbed 
has been well prepared, from one to two inches is 
the proper depth to plant corn. The time of plant- 
ing will vary, of course, with the locality, but in 
general there is no reason for planting the seed be- 
fore the land is warmed thoroughly. Much corn is 
planted too early. In Illinois, for example, the best 
results are obtained from planting corn from May 
1 to 15. 

The Rate of Planting 
The rate of planting will vary with the soil, and 
the purpose for which the corn is to- be grown. 
Corn intended for silage should be planted thicker 
than that intended for maximum grain produc- 
tion, although this may be overdone. Where corn 
is planted too thick, the percentage of protein is 
materially decreased, and the percentage of crude 
fiber increased. The amount of seed should be 
determined by the fertility of the soil and the pur- 
pose for which the plant is to be grown. In the 
corn belt growers usually aim to get about three 
grains in the hill, the rows being three feet six 
inches apart both ways. On poorer soils the plant- 
ing should be thinner. Experiments indicate there 



Corn Growing for Profit 



171 



is no appreciable difference between the average 
yields of drilled corn and that planted in checks, 
where the same amount of seed has been used. 

Drilled corn cannot, of course, be cross-culti- 
vated except when young, when the harrow or 
weeder may be used, and in foul fields it is difficult 




There is a big waste of both stover and grain when the shocks 
are left in the fields until late in the winter. The most econom- 
ical way to handle this material is to shred it and put it under 
shelter. 



to keep free from weeds. But hilly fields ought 
always to be drilled, for if they are checked, soil 
erosion is greatly facilitated. In such fields, the 



172 Making Money on Farm Crops 

rows should run at right angles to the slope of the 
hill. 

Checked corn is more easily kept clean, being 
capable of cultivation both ways with all kinds of 
standard cultural implements. Experience in grow- 
ing corn, planted both ways, and extensive obser- 
vations confirm the general belief that the method 
of distributing the seed does not influence the yield 
except in unusual instances. It is the number of 
stalks an acre which determines the outcome. 

Upon the use to which the crop is to be put de- 
pends the distribution of the seed. Corn for forage, 
soiling purposes or the silo may be planted thicker 
than that intended for high-class seed or the pro- 
duction of large, well-developed ears. 

It takes a little more than a bushel of fifty-six 
pounds of seed to plant eight acres where the hills 
contain three kernels and are forty-two inches apart 
both ways. A dozen good ears will plant an acre. 
With a good team, long rows and a square field from 
ten to fifteen acres a day may be planted with a 
checkrower. 

When corn is planted forty-two inches apart 
each way, there are 3,556 hills an acre. One small 
ear to each hill will make a yield of about thirty- 
five bushels. It is obvious that many growers do 
not get even an average of one small ear to the hill. 



Corn Growing for Profit 173 

Variety Names Are Not Certain 

The nomenclature of corn varieties is in such 
chaos because of mixing of names by seed-corn 
dealers and the mixing of varieties by cross-pollina- 
tion effected by the wind, that a varietal name is of 
little significance in comparison with the vigor, pro- 
ductiveness and purity of the seed. The Learning 
is as constant and well recognized a variety as ex- 
ists, yet seed ears purchased under this name in 
Connecticut or New York are, in appearance and 
productive ability, usually as unlike ears of Learn- 
ing purchased in Ohio or Illinois as they are unlike 
ears of other varieties. 

In purchasing seed corn it is wise to give much 
more attention to the productiveness of a variety, 
its uniformity, and its adaptability to the soil and 
climate where it is to be grown than to the varietal 
name. A variety or strain can be rendered exceed- 
ingly productive by proper breeding, but if neglected 
it soon deteriorates. Careful breeders of produc- 
tive strains of corn are needed in every community. 
When you purchase seed corn, always buy it on 
the ear, for you know then just what you are get- 
ting. There is a good chance to sell inferior seed 
after it is shelled, but such seed can not be "put 
over" when it is on the cob. 



174 Making Money on Farm Crops 

The Cultivation of Corn 

Corn should be cultivated with due regard to 
the growth of the roots. Cultivation should be deep 
and close to the stalks at first, and should be more 
shallow and farther from the corn as the season 
advances. Cultivate corn whenever the plants need 
it, and they need cultivating when a crust has 
formed on the land. Usually it will pay to culti- 
vate corn with a weeder or a harrow before it 
comes up. A peg-tooth harrow is a good imple- 
ment for this purpose. 

The first cultivation is the most important. 
Take plenty of time on this cultivation, get close to 
the corn, and kill the weeds that are just starting. 
It is easier to kill them at that time than later. You 
can get just about as deep and close to the corn at 
this time as you wish, and it will not hurt any- 
thing, unless you actually plow out the little plants. 
After this first cultivation, get farther and farther 
away with each succeeding cultivation. The last 
two should be shallow, and far enough away so the 
roots are not cut. 

But if wet weather comes, and weeds and grass 
"get ahead" of the cultivator — as weeds and grass 
sometimes will do — corn growers should forget all 
about roots, and put the shovels down deep enough 
to destroy this growth. You will damage the corn, 



i h 



r± 



liffi 







-Ifll 



iliiiii iillp :f k l:«P*a^:-^t 



llltlllilB 






^^^^K^&l^l'^ 




To produce corn like this, one must cultivate it well. 



176 Making Money on Farm Crops 

all right, by doing this, but the weeds will hurt it 
worse, so the logical thing is to take the lesser of 
the two evils. The tools used in the cultivation of 
corn should vary with conditions, so the work may 
be done properly. Shovel, disk and surface cultiva- 
tors all have their advocates, and all are good, and 
have their place. If shovel cultivators are used, they 
should be equipped with small shovels, so these 
may be used toward the last of the season. Small 
shovels are better for shallow cultivation than large 
shovels, but the big shovels should be used at the 
first of the season. 

Usually it will pay to continue cultivation after 
the corn is too large to cultivate with two-horse cul- 
tivators. If the ground still is free from crust and 
weeds it probably will not, but if a crust has formed, 
or if there is much of a growth of weeds it will. 
Use five-toothed cultivators. They will break up 
the soil mulch, and conserve the moisture just at a 
time it is badly needed. 

There are many ways to harvest corn. The 
method that is attracting the most attention is by 
the use of silos. Usually, more profit can be made 
from corn fed as silage than when fed in any other 
way. As an aid to meat and milk production, silos 
are in a class by themselves. 



Corn Growing for Profit 177 

Will it Pay to Build a Silo? 

The owners of valuable land can not afford to 
keep much of this land in pasture. Silos are essen- 
tial where stock farming is practiced on high-priced 
land. They return profits everywhere the silage is 
fed properly. 

A silo will be a profitable investment if you 
keep ten head or more stock on your farm. What 
return can one get from the money invested in a 
silo? Well, on an average, corn silage can be put 
into the silo for about $2 a ton, including all of the 
cost of growing the corn. If you feed this silage 
in an economical way to farm animals, you should 
get a return of at least $i.50 a ton. Many higher 
returns have been reported; for example, the animal 
husbandry department of the Kansas Agricultural 
College made a profit of $5.65 a ton one winter on 
silage fed to fattening cattle. If one can produce 
a feed for $2 a ton and feed it to animals so it will 
produce $4.50 a ton, a silo is a mighty good invest- 
ment. 

And here is another thing about a silo that is 
important : Corn is cut for silage when it is in the 
"dough stage," after nearly all the kernels are 
dented, and that is the time the crop often is badly 
injured by drouth. The use of a silo often means 
the saving of the full feeding value of the corn, 



178 



Making Money on Farm Crops 



while many times it would be cut to a half crop by 
dry weather. 

Not more than 60 per cent of the feeding value 
of the corn crop is in the ear, and if only the ears 
are harvested, you have a 40 per cent waste in the 
handling of the crop. If you merely pasture the 




^8#S 



m^^^mmmim 



llilill 




A corn field in December. 
The fodder is losing feeding value rapidly by weathering. 

cornfields, the crop has become so weathered by 
the time the corn is shucked that it does not have 
a. hig'h value. If you do not believe that, just .find 
3ut the average price of cornstalks in your com- 
munity, and compare this price with the value of 
:he grain. It makes a very small per cent. 

Kind of Silo to Build 

All makes of silos have their advocates, and all 
the standard types will keep silage about equally 




Sentinels of prosperity. 



180 Making Money on Farm Crops 

well, if they are well constructed. There is nothing 
to the idea that some makes of silos will keep feed 
better than others, and the thing" you have to con- 
sider in building a silo is the cost, probable life and 
maintenance expense. Usually, a well-constructed 
solid-wall or metal-lath cement silo will be the 
cheapest in the long run. If they are well built, 
they will last a lifetime. Stave silos keep silage 
well, when they are well constructed, but their life 
usually is not nearly so great as the cement types. 

The thin-wall, metal-lath cement silos must be 
built by men who are experienced in the work. The 
solid-wall type of silo may be put up by men who 
are less experienced ; the farmers and their hired 
men can do the work if they will carefully follow 
the plans and specifications for the building of this 
type. The agricultural colleges of Kansas, Mis- 
souri, Iowa, Wisconsin, Illinois, Pennsylvania and 
most other states will furnish full plans and speci- 
fications for the construction of cement silos, and 
usually you can get them to send a man to help you 
put up the silo, if you desire. If you wish to put 
up a silo, no matter what type or kind you select, 
write to your agricultural college and get expert 
advice. 

If you desire to erect a stave silo, the company 
you purchase the silo of usually will put it up on 



Corn Growing for Profit 181 

the farm complete, so the labor of erecting the 
structure need not be done by the farmers. In 
southeastern Kansas and in other places where 
bricks are cheap, many farmers are putting up brick 
silos, and are finishing them inside with cement. A 
good silo can be made from brick, and in many 
places where the bricks are cheap this is the type 
to construct. 

Silos Are Not Expensive 

You will have to get the forms for the solid-wall 
silo, and it will make the cost of this phase of con- 
struction much cheaper if you get several of your 
neighbors to build silos also, so the cost of the 
forms may be divided among all. If you cannot 
get your neighbors interested in the matter, usually 
the forms may be rented from a contractor. The 
cost of a silo is not great. Ordinarily, the cost of 
a solid-wall silo, sixteen by thirty feet, will be not 
far from $9 for every foot of height, but, of course, 
it will vary with the cost of the materials and labor, 
and the distance of the farm from town. Such a 
silo will cost about $300, perhaps a little more, if 
constructed by a contractor, and if the farmer uses 
his own labor and cuts out the contractor's profit, 
he usually can build the silo much cheaper. A silo 
of this type will hold 120 tons of silage. Such a 



182 



Making Money on Farm Crops 



silo is proof against fire and winds, and it can not 
be moved by anything except dynamite. 

In building a silo, remember these facts : The 
walls of a silo must be absolutely airtight, and they 
should be at least twice as high as the diameter, 
and the inner wall must be smooth. The top of the 




Good barns and silos usually are found together. 

silage will spoil, and form an air-tight cap over the 
rest of the feed. If the stalks are very dry when 
you harvest them, add water as they are placed in 
the silo. Cement silos always must have proper 
reinforcement, while stave silos should be anchored 
with guy wires. Never use paint on the inside of 
a stave silo, but instead use linseed oil or creosote. 



Corn Growing for Profit 183 

A roof is not necessary for the keeping qualities of 
the silage, but one always should be constructed. 
A good time to put on the roof is when the silo is 
filled the first time, as then the men have something 
to stand on, and they do not have to construct a 
platform. 

It does not take long to fill a silo and it is best 
for several farmers to go together in buying a silage 
cutter to reduce the cost. The cutters will cost 
from $90 to $300, and sometimes more, depending 
on the size. Use any available power to run the 
machine. 

Capacities of Silos 

The capacity of a silo increases rapidly with the 
diameter. Here is a table that shows this increase: 

TABLE GIVING THE APPROXIMATE CAPACITY 

OF CYLINDRICAL SILOS FOR WELL- 
MATURED CORN SILAGE, IN TONS. 

T nside Diameter in Feet. 
Depth, feet. 15 16 17 18 19 20 

25 80.62 89.64 103.6 116.1 129.3 143.3 

26 85.45 97.23 109.8 123.0 137.1 151.9 

27 90.17 102.6 115.8 129.8 144.7 160.3 

28 94.99 108.1 122.0 136.8 152.4 168.9 

29 99.92 113.7 128.3 143.9 160.3 177.6 

30 105.0 119.4 134.8 151.1 168.4 186.6 

31 109.8 124.9 141.1 158.2 176.2 195.2 

32 115.1 135.9 147.8 165.7 184.6 204.6 

In this table the horizontal lines give the number of 
tons of silage held by a silo having the depth given at the 
left of the column. 



184 



Making Money on Farm Crops 



Feeding Value of Silage 

As to the feeding value of silage: For many 
years, about the only extensive use made of silage 
was feeding it to dairy cattle. Its use is spreading 
until now it profitably is used for almost all farm 
animals. In addition to the food in the silage, the 
green feed tends to keep the animals in fine condi- 
tion, and usually a higher quality of beef can be 
produced by the use of silage than without it. 

Silage is valuable for chickens, to encourage 
winter tgg production. Many fruit farms carry a 
large number of hens in connection with their fruit 
work, and in the winter, egg production is where 




Shucking shock corn is hard work. A shredder would have done 
this work much easier and cheaper. 



Corn Growing for Profit 185 

much of the profit from chickens comes in. If the 
hens are furnished with silage every day in winter, 
it invariably will increase egg production. So im- 
portant is silage for chickens that some, men who 
have no silo prepare small quantities of silage in 
barrels, exclusively for the use of poultry. 

Because of its bulky nature, silage is not adapted 
as a feed for fattening hogs, but it is valuable as a 
feed for brood sows. Be very careful in feeding 
moldy silage to cattle, and never feed it to horses 
under any circumstances. 

Much of the corn, especially in the West, still 
is shucked in the field, and the stalks are pastured. 
Of course, it is unnecessary to say this method is 
wasteful, and should be discarded. An increasing 
amount is being cut and shocked in the field. That 
helps in saving the full feeding value, although it 
is not so efficient a method as making silage out of 
the crop. 

In Regard to Shredding Stover 

Shredding stover actually increases the feeding 
value of the material. Prof. Henry, of the Univer- 
sity of Wisconsin, has conducted feeding tests 
which show that shredding corn increases its feed- 
ing value 24 per cent above that fed to cows in its 
uncut form. In addition to this, considerable feed- 



186 



Making Money on Farm Crops 



ing value is lost by the stalks standing in the fields, 
and this is saved when they are shredded. This loss 
may amount to as much as one-fourth, if the shocks 
are left out as long as two months, and they are, on 
an average. Shredding is not so economical a 



1 




jjp» 






■puna 




* * s "C - • '■ ■ ' ■' " ' K ' 



Shredding corn. This is the way to handle the part of the corn 
crop that is not placed in a silo. 

method of saving the feed as by the use of a silo, 
but it is a far better method than when it is fed as 
shock fodder. You can be certain that no cow will 
give a maximum amount of milk, and that no steer 
will make the most economical use of the feed, if 



Corn Growing for Profit 187 

the fodder is shoved at them as an armful of stalks 
covered with sleet and snow. 

And there is the matter of the manure to con- 
sider, which is an important factor on well-con- 
ducted farms. When the fodder is fed as a mass 
of uncut stalks, it is not in a form that can readily 
be returned to the land. If the stalks are fed in a 
lot, they usually are left there for sometime to rot, 
so they will not bother the cultivation too much. 
By this method, there is a big loss of fertility. If 
the stalks are fed on the fields, there is consider- 
able trouble with the cultivation the next year, espe- 
cially if the land is put in a crop like corn, that re- 
quires considerable + illage. 

The Cost of Shredding 

It does not cost much more to shred fodder than 
it does to handle it in the old way. These figures 
have been prepared by farmers familiar with the 
cost under both methods. The crop consists of one 
thousand bushels that made an average of forty 
bushels an acre in both cases. This is the cost of 
handling it by hand: 

Cost .of husking 1,000 bushels by hand at 

four cents a bushel $40.00 



188 Making Money on Farm Crops 

Board for man doing husking-, averaging fifty 
bushels a day, for twenty-one days, at 
$4.50 a week 13.50 

Cost of hauling husked corn and fodder from 
the field, two men and team, five days 
at $2.00 a day each for the men, and 
$1.50 for the team 27.50 

Board for two men for five days, at 75 cents 

a day 7.50 

Board for team for five days at 50 cents a day 2.50 



Total cost of getting the corn in crib, and the 

fodder stacked $91.00 



Here is the cost of shredding: 

For hire of husker and shredder, including 
the services of crew, and the use of an 
engine, 1,000 bushels at 4 cents a bushel, $40.00 

Three men pitching in the field, one and a 

quarter days at $2.00 each a day 7.50 

Six men to haul stover from the field, one 

and a quarter days at $2.00 each a day. . 15.00 

Six teams and wagons for hauling the fod- 
der to the machine, one and a quarter 
days at $1.50 a day a team 11.25 

Fuel 5.62 



Corn Growing for Profit 18S 

One man for shoveling corn into crib, one 

and a quarter days at $2.00 a day 2.50 

Board for fourteen men, one arid a quarter 

days at 75 cents a day 13.13 

Feed required for six teams, one and a quar- 
ter days at 50 cents a day a team 3.75 

Total $98.75 

So $98,75 minus $91 leaves $7.75 as the cost of 
the shredded fodder. It is quite obvious the shred- 
ding is worth far more than that. 

What is needed is a more efficient use of the 
corn crop of the country. There is too great a loss 
in harvesting the crop at present. It is quite evi- 
dent that not all the crop can be put in silos, so 
there is a place, and a big one, for the shredders. 




Feeding corn to steers in Illinois. 



190 Making Money on Farm Crops 

The main thing is this: With a third of the feed- 
ing value of the corn plant in the stalk, it is a busi- 
ness "bonehead" of the worst kind to allow this 
material to stay in the field, and be harvested by 
the cattle in the stalk fields. The value of feed can 
be estimated readily by what the stockmen are wil- 
ling to pay for it, and it will be found that, in many 
localities, 50 cents an acre is considered a fair price 
for stalk fields. Stop this loss. 

Shrinkage of Corn 

When corn first is gathered in the fall, there 
usually is quite a rapid shrinkage in weight. This 
is well known, and accounts for some of the wild 
scramble among corn growers, to get rid of the 
crop at that time. This shrinkage is not so great as 
it usually is supposed. After the corn has passed 
through the first shrinkage, the rate of loss is 
largely determined by the moisture and temperature. 
The bureau of grain standardization tested the 
shrinkage after this first loss was over, and ob- 
tained some interesting results. 

The bureau placed 500 bushels of shelled corn, 
which weighed 28,000 pounds, in the wooden hop- 
per of a 30,000 pound scale in a Baltimore elevator, 
Jan. 5, 1910. This corn had a moisture content 
of 18.8, which is a good, average figure. Until 



Corn Growing for Profit 191 

April 21, the corn remained in splendid condition, 
and the loss was but four-tenths of one per cent. 
Soon after, the corn went out of condition, and the 
loss from then on until June 8 was about 7 per cent. 
That loss probably was much higher than it would 
have been if there had been a smaller bulk together. 
The total loss was 1,970 pounds. 

The Weight of a Bushel of Corn 

Fifty-six pounds of shelled corn constitute a 
legal bushel in all the states and territories except 
California, where the legal bushel weighs 52 pounds, 
and Arizona, where it is 54 pounds. A number of 
states have no statutory weights. In all such cases, 
56 pounds of shelled corn is a bushel. All states 
that have statutes on the subject make seventy 
pounds of corn on the cob a bushel, with the three 
exceptions of Indiana, Ohio and Mississippi, their 
legal bushels of corn in this form weighing sixty- 
eight, sixty-eight and seventy-two pounds respec- 
tively. 

Prevention of the Smut of Corn 

The smut of corn is not caused by sowing 
smutty seed. Seed treatments for disinfecting pur- 
poses, therefore, are entirely useless. It is possible 
to reduce the quantity of smut by going through 
the fields when it first appears and cutting out and 



192 Making Money on Farm Crops 

burning all smut masses. To be at all effective, 
however, this should be done before the smut boils 
begin to turn black and break open, because so soon 
as this happens an enormous number of spores es- 
cape into the air, and are widely distributed. This 
method of combating smut takes much labor, and 
whether such work gives sufficient returns to be 
highly recommended has not yet been demonstrated. 

Where much smut from the preceding crop has 
been brought into the barnyard in fodder and such 
fodder has been fed to cattle, many live smut spores 
are to be found in the manure. These not only live 
over winter on old stalks and in manure, but also 
may go through the alimentary canal of animals 
without being injured. In fact, smut will produce 
its second crop of spores in the manure pile in great 
abundance. 

Some varieties of corn undoubtedly are more re- 
sistant to' smut than others, but there are so many 
other factors, such as vigor, yielding power, and the 
like, which enter into the selection of a variety of 
corn that little attention has been paid to this phase 
of the problem. 

Insect Enemies of Corn 

More than two hundred species of insects are 
known that feed on corn. Sometimes, in the spring, 
a farmer is apt to think there is ten times that num- 



Corn Growing for Profit 



193 



ber, when he sees the damage. However, while 
there usually is some damage done to every field, 
there seldom is a total loss of the crop. Frequently, 




The corn ear worm at work. 



there is an especially great amount of damage when 
clover or grass sod is broken up and the land is 
planted to corn. The insects that have been work- 

7 



194 Making Money on Farm Crops 

ing on the legumes or grasses turn their attention 
to the corn in a way that is quite noticeable. 

The best way to combat these insects is by a 
good rotation of crops, and by fall plowing. If the 
land is handled properly, if a good rotation is used 
and if the land is plowed in the fall, there usually 
will not be much danger from corn insects. The 
common corn insects are : Cutworms, wireworms, 
white grubs, root worms, web-worms, root louse, 
ear-worm and bill bugs. Chinch bugs frequently 
bother, too, especially when they are produced in a 
field of small grain, and come to the corn field after 
the small grain is cut. 

How to Judge Corn 

Here is a score card that will do for judging dent 
corn. A study of the card will tend to impress the 
essential characteristics of a good ear of corn: 

1. Trueness of Type or Breed Characteristics, 
10 Points — The ten ears in a sample should possess 
similar or like characteristics, and should be true to 
the variety they represent. 

2. Shape of Ear, 10 Points— The shape of the 
ear should conform to the variety type. The ear 
should be full and strong in central portion, and 
not taper too rapidly toward the tip. 

3. Purity (a) in Grain, 5 Points — The color of 
the grain should be true to variety, and free from 



Corn Growing for Profit 195 

mixture. For one or two mixed grains, cut one- 
fourth point; for four or more mixed grains, a cut 
of one-half point should be made. Difference in 
shade of color must be scored according to variety 
characteristics, (b) In Cob, 5 Point — An ear with 
white cob in yellow maise or red cob in white maize 
should be disqualified or marked zero. This mix- 
ture reduces the value of the maize for seed pur- 
poses, indicates lack of purity, and tends towards 
a too wide variation in time of maturity, and in the 
size and shape of the grains. 

4. Vitality of Seed Condition, 10 Points— Maize 
should be in good seed condition, being capable of 
producing a strong, vigorous growth and yield. 

5. Tips, 5 Points — The form of tip should be 
regular ; grains near the tip should be of regular 
shape and size. The proportion of tip covered or 
filled must be considered. Long pointed tips as 
well as short flattened or double tips are objection- 
tionable. 

6. Butts, 5 Points— The rows of grains should 
extend in regular order over the butt, leaving a 
deep depression when the shank is removed. Open 
and swelled butts, depressed and flat butts, with 
flattened glazed grains, are objectionable, and must 
be cut according to the judgment of the scorer. 



196 Making Money on Farm Crops 

7. Grains; (a) Uniformity of, 10 Points; (b) 
Shape of, 5 Points — The grains should be uniform 
in shape and size, making it possible to secure uni- 
formity in dropping with the planter, and conse- 
quently a good stand. The grains should also be 
not only uniform or individual ears, but also uniform 
in color and true to variety type. The grains should 
be shaped so their edges touch from tip to crown. 

8. Length of Ear, 10 Points — The length of ear 
varies according to variety, type, and the character- 
istics sought by individual breeders. Uniformity in 
length is to be sought for in a sample, and a sam- 
ple having an even length of ears should score 
higher than one that varies, even if it be within the 
limits. Set a limit for length of ears of sample ac- 
cording to variety, allowing a variation of one inch. 
The sum of the excesses and deficiencies in inches 
should constitute a cut in points. 

9. Circumference of Ear, 5 Points — The circum- 
ference of the ear will vary according to the variety 
and the latitude. The circumference of the ear 
should be in symmetry with its length. An ear too 
great in circumference for its length is generally 
slow in maturing, and too frequently results in soft 
maize. Set a limit for circumference of ears of sam- 
ple according to variety, allowing a variation of one- 
half inch. The sum of the excesses and deficiencies 



Corn Growing for Profit 197 

in inches should constitute a cut in points. Measure 
the circumference at one-third the distance from the 
butt to the tip of the ear. 

10. (a) Furrows Between Rows, 5 Points — The 
furrows between the rows of grains should be of suf- 
ficient size to permit the maize to dry out readily, 
but not so large as to lose in proportion of grain to 
cob. (b) Space Between Tips of Grain at Cob, 5 
Points — This is objectionable, as it indicates imma- 
turity, weak constitution and poor feeding value. 

11. Proportion of Grain to Cob, 10 Points— The 
proportion of grain is determined by weight. Depth 
of grains, size of cob, maturity furrows and space at 
cob all affect the proportion. In determining the 
proportion of grain to cob, weigh and shell every 
alternate ear. Weigh the grain and subtract from 
weight of ears, giving weight of grain; divide the 
weight of grain by the total weight of ears, which 
will give the percentage of grain. The per cent of 
grain should be from 86 to 87. For every per cent 
short of the standard, a cut of one and one-half 
points should be made. 



CHAPTER VII. 
WHEAT AS A MONEY CROF 



CHAPTER VII. 
WHEAT AS A MONEY CROP 

Soils for Wheat 

The Place of Wheat in the Rotation 

Fertilizers for Wheat 

Preparation of the Ground 

Cultivate the Soil 

Use the Disk 

Summer Fallowing for Wheat 

Local Adaptation 

Change in Hardness 

Amount of Seed to the Acre 

The Enemies of Wheat 

Insect Enemies of Wheat 

The Hessian Fly 

Insects Affecting Stored Wheat 

When Should Wheat Be Cut? 

Shall We Thresh From the Shock? 

Effect of Exposure on Wheat 

"Sweat" in Wheat 

Heat-Damaged or "Bin-Burnt" Wheat 

Stacked Wheat is Easier to Thresh 

Relation of Moisture Content to Test Weight 

How to Feed Bundles Into the Feeder 

In Regard to Selling Wheat 

The History of Wheat 



CHAPTER VII. 
WHEAT AS A MONEY CROP 

A carefully prepared seedbed and good seed are 
the two great essentials for profitable wheat grow- 
ing. Perhaps the greatest loss is in poorly prepared 
seedbeds. This is especially true in the principal 
wheat sections, where this is the main crop. A large 
acreage of wheat is sown, every year, in Kansas, 
the greatest wheat producing state, with absolute 
disregard of proper soil preparation. The average 
yield of wheat in the United States is less than 14 
bushels an acre, which is very near the cost of pro- 
duction. 

Soils for Wheat 

Many soils splendidly adapted to corn are not 
good wheat soils. The reason is that wheat is apt 
to winter-kill on land that heaves much. Clay soil 
is of this kind ; for it usually is markedly affected by 
thawing and freezing. Quite a bit of the wheat of 
the country is grown on glacial drift soils, for they 
are well adapted to growing this crop. However, 
the preparation of the seedbed has such a marked 
effect on the crop that a soil not naturally adapted 



202 Making Money on Farm Crops 

to growing wheat may produce good crops, if the 
ground has been properly prepared. On the other 
hand, the land may be well adapted to growing the 
plant, and poor seedbed preparation may reduce the 
yield so much that it is not worth the trouble to 
harvest it. 

The Place of Wheat in the Rotation 

In the corn belt, wheat is of great value as a 
nurse crop for clover, alfalfa and the grasses. It is 
especially adapted as a nurse crop for clover. In 
many sections, it will pay to sow clover in wheat, 
because a stand usually can be obtained in this way, 
and it is not necessary to lose a year's rent on a 
field while one is waiting for the clover to* "catch." 
Probably this accounts for quite a bit of the wheat 
acreage in corn sections. There should be an exten- 
sion of the growth of this crop in such states. 

But however efficiently wheat is used in rota- 
tions in the corn belt, it is certain that corn is not 
mixed in much with wh'eat grown in the main wheat 
belt. There, wheat after wheat is the rotation most 
used, and in many places there is no effort made to 
introduce legumes in the rotation. The introduc- 
tion of a good crop rotation is a much more diffi- 
cult proposition in the wheat belt than in the corn 



Wheat as a Money Crop 



203 



belt, mostly on account of the difference in mois- 
ture conditions, and oartly in the soil conditions. 

In most sections of the wheat belt, alfalfa may 
be grown, and where it cannot, cowpeas often may 
be introduced in the rotation. But little effort usually 








; :.: >:,.! ... 






^y-^iMtM 




iflflifiiit 



In the wheat fields of Ohio. 



is made to keep livestock, and where meat produc- 
ing animals are kept, the manure is made available 
for the use of crops much more slowly than it is 
in corn sections where there is an abundance of 



204 Making Money on Farm Crops 

moisture. This much is certain: If farmers in 
wheat sections do not make an effort to maintain 
soil fertility, the land will be in a worse condition 
when it is exhausted than the land in the corn belt, 
for the moisture and soil conditions will make a 
reconstructive type of farming harder to introduce. 

Fertilizers for Wheat 

A large amount of available nitrogen in the 
land has a bad effect on this crop. An excessive 
amount of soluble nitrates will cause wheat to lodge, 
or fail down. This is caused by the forcing of a 



Marketing wheat in the Palouse country of the Northwest. 

too rapid growth of the stem, which grows so fast 
it is not able to support itself. If there is too great 
an amount of nitrogen, the ground should be planted 
to corn, or some similar crop that can not be in- 
jured by too much plant food. 

Phosphorus is an element removed by wheat to 



Wheat as a Money Crop 



205 



a considerable extent, and is most apt to be ex- 
hausted by this plant. A proper amount of avail- 
able phosphorus is essential for wheat to mature 
profitable crops, and if it is not present in the soil, 
it should be supplied. 

Preparation of the Ground 

The seedbed for wheat should be plowed just as 
soon as possible after the crop that is grown has 
been harvested. Plowing is still the method most 
used in breaking the soil, and under most condi- 




Soft wheat on a field in southeastern Kansas that yielded 46 
bushels an acre. The seed of this wheat came from the Kansas 
Experiment Station. 



tions it is the best way, although listing is all right 
under some conditions in the West. Ground for 
wheat should be plowed about five inches deep, or 
deeper, if it is plowed in July, but the depth of plow- 
ing should be decreased as the season advances. 



206 



Making Money on Farm Crops 



Probably four inches is the best depth for plowing, 
if the land is not broken until September. This 
early, deep plowing is important. 

Here are the results obtained at the Kansas Ex- 
periment Station with the seedbed for wheat pre- 
pared in different ways. On these wheat plats, 
Bearded Fife wheat was sown with a disk drill, at 
the rate of one and one-fourth bushels an acre. The 
wheat was sown on all plats the same day, Sept. 29 : 





Yield an 
acre in 


Cost an 


Value of 


Value 


METHOD OF PREPARATION. 


acre for 
prepara- 


crop at 
80 cents 


less cost 
of prep- 




bushels 


tion 


bushel 


aration 


Disked, not plowed 


4.29 


$1.95 


$ 3.42 


$ 1.47 


Plowed September 15, three 










inches deep 


14.46 


3.05 


11.57 


8.52 


Plowed September 15, seven 










inches deep 


15.79 


3.55 


12.63 


9.08 


Double disked July 15; 










plowed September 15, 










seven inches deep 


23.57 


4.35 


18.85 


14.50 


Plowed August 15, seven 










inches deep. Not 










worked until Sept. 15.. 


23.62 


3.55 


18.89 


15.34 


Plowed August 15, seven 










inches deep 


27.74 


3.90 


22.19 


18.29 


Double disked July 15; 










plowed August 15, 










seven inches deep 


32.68 


4.70 


26.14 


21.44 


Plowed July 15, three inches 










deep 


33.46 


4.45 


26.77 


22.32 


Listed July 15, five inches 










deep. Ridges split Au- 










gust 15 


34.35 


3.75 


27.48 


23.73 


Listed July 15, five inches 










deep. Worked down.. 


35.07 


3.70 


28.05 


24.35 


Plowed July 15, seven inches 










deep 


38.36 


4.95 


30.69 


25.74 



Wheat as a Money Crop 207 

The cost of the various operations was figured 
as follows : 

$1.25 an acre for shallow plowing. 
1.75 an acre for deep plowing. 
.75 an acre for listing. 
.40 an acre for disking. 
.35 an acre for Acme harrowing. 
.25 an acre for harrowing. 
.40 an acre for seeding. 

These results stated in another form show the 
following results: 

Land disked but not plowed cost $1.95 an acre 
for preparation, and produced four and one-half 
bushels of wheat an acre. The crop, when sold, re- 
turned $1.47 an acre over the cost of preparation of 
the land. 

Land plowed three inches deep (too shallow) 
September 15 (too late for best results) gave a yield 
of 14-J bushels, and a return of $8.52 an acre after 
paying for the labor required to prepare the ground. 

Land plowed at a proper depth, 7 inches, Sep- 
tember 15 (too late) produced 15J bushels an acre, 
and gave a return of $9.08 an acre after deducting 
the cost of preparation. 

Land double disked July 15, to stop the waste 
of moisture, and plowed seven inches deep Septem- 



208 Making Money on Farm Crops 

ber 15 (too late for the best results, even when land 
has been previously disked) produced 23J bushels 
an acre, showing a return of $14.50 an acre after 
paying for the cost of preparation. 

Land plowed August 15, worked sufficient to 
preserve soil mulch thereafter, yielded 27f bushels 
an acre, with a net value of $18.29 an acre. 

Land plowed August 15, seven inches deep, not 
worked until September 15, showed a yield of 23 2-3 
bushels an acre, and a return of $15.34 after deduct- 
ing the cost of preparation. 

Land double disked July 15, to save moisture, 

plowed August 15, seven inches deep, produced 

34 2/3 bushels an acre, and gave a net return of 
$21.44. 

Land plowed July 15, three inches deep, (plowed 
at the right time but too shallow for the best re- 
sults) produced 33J bushels an acre, and a net re- 
turn of $22.32. 

Land listed July 15, five inches deep, ridges split 
August 15, gave a return of 34 1/3 bushels an acre, 
and $23.73 over all expenses. 

Land listed July 15, five inches deep, worked 
down level at once, to avoid waste of moisture, gave 

35 bushels an acre, from which there was left $24.35 
after paying the cost of preparation. 



Wheat as a Money Crop 



209 



Land plowed July 15 (the right time), seven 
inches deep, gave a yield of 38 1/3 bushels an acre, 
the highest yield in the experiment. After paying 
for the cost of preparation, there was left $25.74 an 
acre, the largest net return of any method under 
trial. 

These tests show that early, deep plowing for 
wheat is essential for the highest yields. 

Cultivate the Soil 

After the soil is plowed, it should be kept culti- 
vated during the summer in order to kill the weeds, 




A wheat field in August. 
The soil has been well disked, moisture is, being- conserved, 
soluble plant foods are being formed, and the seed-bed will be 
in splendid shape for the crop later. 



conserve moisture, and encourage the formation of 
available plant food. The ideal seedbed for wheat 



210 Making Money on Farm Crops 

consists of firm, well-compacted soil, and to get this 
firm seedbed from a soil that has been plowed deeply 
requires time and cultivation. And remember this 
about the seedbed — if the seedbed is not fairly firm, 
if the soil has not been well prepared, there will not 
be good capillary connection of the soil with the 
subsoil, and if this capillary attraction is not re- 
stored, the subsoil water cannot be used by the 
growing plant. And if the young wheat plants can- 
not use the soil moisture promptly, they will not 
make a good growth before the winter sets in. If 
the wheat does not make a good growth in the fall, 
the young plants will be injured by the freezing of 
the ground, for the root system will not get well 
established. 

Use the Disk 

Disk the soil every two or three weeks after it 
is plowed until the seed is sown, if there is a growth 
of weeds and a firming of the soil by rain so it needs 
disking that often. Of course, if there is no rain, 
the soil need not be disked so often. But keep the 
ground stirred so the surface is kept loose, and evap- 
oration of soil water checked. 

Harrow the land well before the seed is planted. 
And when you plant the seed have this condition in 
the soil : H»ave the soil loose about as deep as the 



Wheat as a Money Crop 211 

seed is planted, and below the seed the soil should 
be firm and have a good capillary attraction with 
the subsoil. The firm soil below supplies moisture 
for germination and growth, while the mellow soil 
above the seed allows a good circulation of soil air. 
It also aids in warming the soil, as it absorbs the 
heat from the sun during the day, and acts as a 
blanket over the soil to conserve this heat at night. 

Summer Fallowing for Wheat 
In general, the practice of fallowing should be 
discouraged, but there are some sections where it is 
almost necessary, such as under the conditions in 
western Kansas and Nebraska. Where the rainfall 
is not sufficient for the maximum production of 
wheat, good results have been obtained by summer 
fallowing, a-nd producing a crop once in two years. 
At the dry farming station at North Platte, Neb., 
some extensive work has been done in growing 
wheat in this manner. Five years' results compar- 
ing summer fallowing with continuous cropping is 
reported from the Nebraska Experiment Station. 
The following figures are given here because the 
information is conclusive for the Great Plains area, 



212 



Making Money on Farm Crops 



with respect to the comparative value of the fallow 
with continuous cropping: 

RELATION OF YIELD OF WINTER WHEAT TO 
AVAILABLE WATER. 





Summer 


Tilled 






YEAR. 


% 

CD 
S-< 
O 


Available water 
in upper six 
feet of soil at 
seeding time. 


ah 

"3 go 

Q-KM T-H 


i 

JH 

ts * 

^ TO 0> 

Hce.S 


1907 


bushels 
59.0 
57.0 
57.0 
37.6 
30.2 


inches 

7.0 
8.2 
7.0 
7.6 


inches 
13.74 
13.65 
13.65 
15.80 
10.18 


inches 


1908 

1908 


20.65 
21.85 


1909 

1910 


22.80 
17.68 





Land Continuously Cropped 




1907 .... 




24.4 




13.74 




1908 




20.8 


1.9 


13.65 


15.55 


1908 




29.0 


2.2 


13.65 


15.18 


1909 




19.0 


1.1 


15.80 


16.90 


1910 








10.18 





In commenting on these results, the writers say 
"that if the yields on the summer-tilled land for the 
four years preceding 1910 are divided by two, on 
account of the land being used two seasons to pro- 
duce one crop, there will be still three bushels an 
acre in favor of the summer-tilled land. The sum- 
mer-tilled land produced six bushels an acre more 
in two years than that produced on the land not 
summer-tilled. The seed required to produce two 



Wheat as a Money Crop 213 

crops under ordinary methods of tillage is twice as 
much as that required to produce one crop on sum- 
mer-tilled land. The labor required to produce the 
two crops is much more than that required to pro- 
duce the one crop." 

These results do not mean that producing crops 
once in two years should be the rule where there is 
a proper amount of rainfall. Not at all. But where 
the moisture is so reduced that it will not, on an 
average, produce a good crop every year, growing 
a crop once in two years often is the most profit- 
able thing to do. 

Local Adaptation 

The country is divided into hard and soft wheat 
belts by moisture and soil conditions, and if one is 
in a hard wheat belt he should grow hard wheat, 
and if he is in a soft wheat belt he should grow soft 
wheat. Take, for example, the region around Hutch- 
inson, Kans., which is a good hard wheat country, 
hard wheat will do better there than soft wheat, and 
hard wheat should always be planted. But farther 
east, in eastern Kansas and Missouri, where there is 
more moisture, the soil is better adapted to growing 
soft wheat, and soft wheat should be sown. 

Durum wheat is coming into favor in some sec- 
tions. It produces larger crops in many places where 



. _ : Making Money on Farm Crops 

the rainfall is not large than does other wheat. 
Millers have discriminated against this wheat in the 
past, largely on account of trouble in grinding it. 




II 
fii 




The soil was well prepared. 

It is excessively hard, and most of the machinery 
that will handle ordinary wheat will not give good 
results with Durum wheat. 

There is no best variety of wheat for the whole 
country. Variety adaptations change with the 
change in communities, and the effort should be to 



Wheat as a Money Crop 215 

get seed that will produce the largest yields under 
your conditions. Always be certain, when you buy 
new seed, that it is adapted to the conditions such 
as you have in your section. That is important. 
And the conditions vary markedly, even in short 
distances. 

Change in Hardness 

The degree of hardness in wheat varies mark- 
edly. There are all grades from the soft, starchy 
grains of the Pacific Coast wheat fields, in the white 
wheat sections, to the flinty kernels of Durum wheat. 
And hardness is not a fixed quality with a variety, 
either. If a seed of hard wheat is taken from the 
hard wheat section of Kansas, for example, to the 
southeastern part of the state, it will become softer. 
And if soft wheat is taken into a hard wheat sec- 
tion, it will tend to become harder. Wheat adapts 
itself to the moisture and soil conditions under 
which it is grown. 

The varieties of hard wheat are purer than those 
of soft wheat. Some varieties of hard wheat, Khar- 
kof for example, are practically pure. Make an ef- 
fort to keep the seed of the variety you grow pure. 
Be certain there is no mixing when your wheat is 
threshed. There is more mixing of seed wheat in 
threshing machines than in any other way. This 
not only happens with farmers on commercial work, 



216 



Making Money on Farm Crops 



but it also sometimes happens on experiment sta- 
tions, when several varieties are being threshed. 

One of the best ways to aid in cleaning out the 
separator, and getting it free from grain the neigh- 
bor grew, is to thresh oats or some other crop be- 
fore you thresh wheat. If you do have to start on 
wheat, do not save the first few loads for seed ; sell 




A Kansas wheat field. 



them to the elevator. You cannot be sure the ma- 
chine is free from wheat from the former setting 
when ten bushels have gone through, or even when 
100 have been threshed, although you can be more 
certain with the higher amount. 

After you have obtained the seed and have pre- 
pared the land, the next problem is to plant the seed. 
Wheat always should be drilled. The depth will 



Wheat as a Money Crop 217 

vary with the soil. For example, wheat may be 
sown deeper in a sandy soil than in a clay soil. Per- 
haps the average depth of planting is about one and 
one-half inches. The best time for sowing is a com- 
plicated problem, on account of the many factors 
that enter into it. The time depends on climatic 
conditions and the Hessian fly mostly. The prepa- 
ration and richness of the land also has something 
to do with it. If Hessian fly is bad in your locality, 
you should put the planting off late to escape it. If 
there is no danger from this fly, planting may be 
done earlier. There is no best time that can be 
stated for any locality, because the problem is so 
complicated, and the best time even will vary from 
year to year. The most important thing is to escape 
the Hessian fly. 

Amount of Seed to the Acre 

In general, too little seed is sown. From five to 
eight pecks is the proper amount under most condi- 
tions. There are few conditions where a seeding of 
less than five pecks will return maximum yields. 
But, of course, the exact amount will vary with the 
year and the variety, for the kernels in the different 
varieties vary markedly in size. 

Always fan wheat before it is sown. Every 
farmer who sows even a small acreage of wheat can 
afford to own a fanning mill. Two or more neigh- 



218 Making Money on Farm Crops 

bors, however, should go together to purchase the 
outfit, and divide the cost. Get a power outfit, if 
you have a gasoline engine to run it, to reduce labor. 
Much of the wheat, especially in sections where 
considerable livestock is kept, is injured by pastur- 
ing. There are conditions — where the crop is grow- 
ing too rapidly during a warm period in the winter 
is an example — that pasturing may help, but these 
conditions are not common. So be careful with the 
pasturing, and do not pasture the crop at all unless 
the wheat has made a good growth. Do not pasture 
late in the spring in any case. 

The Enemies of Wheat 

Cheat is the worst wheat weed. So common is 
this pest, especially in soft wheat sections, and in 
such remarkable ways does it appear that it has 
given rise to the superstition, among some farmers, 
that wheat can turn to cheat. Of course, this is not 
true. Wheat will not turn to cheat any more than 
it will turn to corn. If you plant clean seed on 
ground free from the weed, and the seed is not scat- 
tered on the field in some other way, there will be 
no cheat in the wheat. Cheat seeds very abundantly, 
and a single plant has been known to produce 
more than three thousand seeds. This plant will 
stand more cold than wheat, and it is not attacked 
by common wheat insects, but it is not quite so vig- 




? 









220 Making Money on Farm Crops 

orous a grower. These facts explain why wheat will 
choke out cheat when it grows well, and why, after 
a hard winter, most of the fields seem to be cheat. 
The proper way to guard against cheat is always to 
sow clean seed. 

Wheat rust causes quite a bit of damage every 
year. There is no known remedy. Loose smut is 
a common disease that causes some loss, but it 
usually is not bad. The hot water treatment is 
used for this disease, but this treatment injures the 
germination power of the seed. Generally it is not 
necessary to treat the seed for this disease. 

Stinking smut, or "bunt," does considerable 
damage, in some sections. This disease affects the 
grains, which become considerably enlarged, and 
filled with a mass of spores. When these spores 
find their way into flour, they make it unfit for food. 
Losses from stinking smut frequently run from one- 
fourth to one-half of the crop, and this practically 
ruins the grain, of course, for there is no practical 
way to separate the diseased kernels from the sound 
ones. 

If this disease is present, immerse the wheat in- 
tended for seed in cold water, and the smut balls 
will rise to the surface, and then may be skimmed 
off. Then immerse the seed for 30 minutes in a 
solution of formalin, which has been mixed at the 



Wheat as a Money Crop 



221 



rate of one pound of 10 per cent formalin to 50 gal- 
lons of water. This usually will free the seed from 
smut spores. 

Insect Enemies of Wheat 

Chinch bugs are one of the worst insect wheat 
pests. After this insect gets into wheat, there is no 
practical method that can be used to eradicate it. 
The growers must take their loss. then. The de- 





zzmsmmz r. ■■■:.-,,. 
Preparing for wheat in Oregon. 

struction of the winter homes of the insect is one 
of the best methods of combatting chinch bugs. 
This has been used with considerable benefit by the 
department of entomology of the Kansas Agricul- 
tural College, in Sumner County, Kansas. The de- 
partment obtained the co-operation of the farmers 



222 Making Money on Farm Crops 

there, and all the grass, stalks and other matter 
where the bugs could find winter quarters were 
burned, over many square miles. There was a re- 
markable decrease in the chinch bug damage the 
next year in that section when compared with sur- 
rounding counties. 

This burning of vegetable matter to destroy the 
winter quarters of chinch bugs is something that 
should be handled carefully, and the method should 
be used with due regard to the humus supply of the 
land. Practically all land needs all the humus it 
can get, and the vegetation should not be burned 
except where the good resulting from the killing of 
the bugs will more than pay for the loss of humus. 
There is no doubt, however, that there are many 
cases where it will pay. 

But there are other methods that can be used 
with considerable benefit. If the ground is disked 
soon after a small grain crop is cut, many insects 
will be destroyed. And as this is just what should 
be done to prepare the ground for a wheat crop, 
this method should be used much more extensively 
than it is now used. Every effort should be made 
to keep the bugs from going from wheat fields, 
after wheat has reached maturity and has been cut, 
to the corn fields. Tar and dust barriers may easily 



Wheat as a Money Crop 223 

be constructed, so the bugs may be kept out of the 
corn, and it pays big to use them. 

The Hessian Fly 

The adult Hessian fly is a small, almost black 
two-winged insect which lays its eggs on young 
wheat in the fall. These eggs produce a larvae which 
crawls down within the leaf sheaves next to the 
stem, feeding upon the young plant and finally pass- 
ing into the pupal stage, which is ordinarily called 
the flaxseed stage with this insect, because at this 
stage it resembles a flax seed in general appearance. 
The insect passes the winter in this stage, and comes 
out and lays eggs upon the wheat in the spring. 
These eggs soon hatch, and the larvae produced are 
responsible for the greatest damage from the Hes- 
sian fly. The spring larvae go into the pupal stage, 
and remain in the wheat stubble, coming out as 
adults in September to deposit eggs upon the young 
wheat plants. The principal remedy for the Hes- 
sian fly is late sowing. It is often recommended to 
sow a catch strip around the field early and allow 
the eggs to be deposited in this wheat, sowing the 
rest of the wheat later. This catch strip can then 
be plowed under late in the season, thus destroying 
the insects. Rotation of crops also will tend to elim- 
inate this pest. In addition to the insects mentioned, 



224 Making Money on Farm Crops 

the wheat bulb-worm, wheat midge, and some oth- 
ers cause damage in some sections. But the chinch 
bugs and Hessian fly are the two principal insects 
that damage growing wheat. 

Insects Affecting Stored Wheat 

There are many insects that affect stored wheat ; 
and most of these same insects also bother products 
that are made from wheat. It is a fight with insects 
all along the line, from the time the wheat comes up 
until it is delivered to the ultimate consumers. 
Fumigation with bisulphide of carbon, which you 
can purchase at any drug store, is the best remedy 
for all insects that affect stored wheat, under aver- 
age farm conditions. In elevators and mills, other 
remedies are available. Use one pound of carbon 
bisulphide to every thousand feet of space. 

When Should Wheat Be Cut? 

In the humid sections of the United States, 
wheat usually is cut when the straw begins to turn 
yellow, and when the grains still can be indented 
between the fingers, but after they have passed well 
out of the dough stage. There is an increase in the 
weight of the grain up until it is dead ripe, but the 
increase is the fastest up until it has reached the 
stage where it can be crushed, after it has passed 
out of the dough state. In the dryer sections, where 



4^ ' 




A well-capped shock of wheat. Wheat will not bleach when it is 
shocked properly. Note the way the cap bundles are placed. 



226 Making Money on Farm Crops 

there is little danger of damage from rain, wheat can 
be left for many days after it has become dead ripe, 
with but little damage. This is not true in humid 
sections, and it is better to cut the wheat a little 
green than it is to cut it too ripe, because wet 
weather may seriously damage the crop, and make 
the land too soft to carry the binders. Therefore, if 
one has a large wheat acreage, the wheat should 
be cut promptly. 

It always will pay to cap wheat shocks, in humid 
regions. Shock the bundles in round, medium- 
sized shocks, and use two cap sheaves. Break the 
heads and the Jnitts of these sheaves -before you 
place them on the shock, and then smooth them 
down, just before you leave the shock. This will 
tend to prevent the bundles blowing off. 

Shall We Thresh From the Shock? 

Thousands of bushels of wheat are lost, every 
year, by threshing from the shock, after waiting 
until the weather has damaged the grain. Never 
wait on a machine that "will be here the first of 
next week." Too many things can happen to the 
threshing rig, and there is too great a danger of loss 
from rain to make it profitable to afford to wait, 
is an axiom to be followed year after year. Always 
stack the grain when it is ready. There is not much 



Wheat as a Money Crop 



227 



loss of time, anyway, by doing this even if the ma- 
chine comes just as you finish stacking, when you 
consider the "deadhead" time of the men and teams 
while waiting when the machine is moving and 
when it breaks down. 

On the contrary, there may be a loss of most of 
the crop, if it is allowed to stand until a machine 
finally comes. The author has seen wheat that 




There is no hurry to get the threshing machine now. 

was cut in June and allowed to stand until the mid- 
dle of August, with the promise the machine would 
come soon. There are many cases like that every 
year. 

Effect of Exposure on Wheat 
L. A. Fitz, professor of milling industry in the 
Kansas Agricultural College, said, in speaking of 



22S Making Money on Farm Crops 

the damage to wheat in the shock: "In addition to 
causing the bleached appearance and lowering the 
test weight, the exposure of wheat to rain and sun 
while standing in the shock causes many of the ker- 
nels to sprout, and sprouted wheat will not produce 
good, sound flour. Furthermore, the indications are 
that this excess moisture acquired in the field after 
harvest continues to be a source of injury to the 
quality until the wheat is dried either artificially or 
by natural means. 

"Sweat" in Wheat 

"Millers, as well as operators of country and 
terminal elevators, prefer wheat that has gone 
through the 'sweat.' The millers invariably hold 
that sweating in the stack improves weathered 
grain, and is much to be desired. Comparatively 
little is known as to what the process commonly re- 
ferred to as 'sweat of wheat 7 consists of. It is 
known that even after wheat is cut, the straw con- 
tains sufficient plant food to keep the kernels in a 
growing condition for some time, and a chemical 
or enzymic action within the plant by means of 
which this nutriment is transferred to the grain and 
stored as starch may continue for a considerable 
period. When wheat has been threshed before go- 
ing through the sweat, it is probable that a rear- 



Wheat as a Money Crop 229 

rangement of the chemical constituents of the ker- 
nels still takes place, and this will account for the 
sweating of shock-threshed grain in the bin. 

"As chemical action is generally accompanied by 
the evolution of heat, this may account for the heat 
usually generated during the sweating process. The 
amount of heat generated appears to be influenced 
by the percentage of moisture present. Grain that 
has been sufficiently ripened and is also very dry 
will give little evidence through change in temper- 
ature that it is going through the sweating process. 
On the other hand, wheat cut in the hard-dough 
stage, or containing considerable moisture, goes into 
the sweat much more quickly when stacked ; the 
straw becomes very tough and a great deal of heat 
is evolved. Care should be exercised not to stack 
wheat of this character before it is allowed to cure 
out in the shock for a few days ; otherwise sufficient 
heat may be evolved, even in the stack, tO' injure 
the grain, in which case 'stack-burnt' wheat will 
result. 

"Cutting the grain seems to act as a sort of 
check upon this biological action, and it appears to 
remain in a dormant state until the assembling of 
the gram in large bulk brings on a condition favor- 
able to activity. When the grain is stacked, the 
straw permits to a limited extent the circulation of 



230 Making Money on Farm Crops 

air through the stack, and this circulation affords 
a means of conducting away considerable of the 
heat generated in stacked grain. 

Heat-Damaged or "Bin-Burnt" Wheat 

"If wheat with a rather high moisture content 
is placed, before going through the. sweat, in a large 
bulk in a bin where there is very little chance for a 
circulation of air, and any heat generated by biolog- 
ical action is retained in the grain until finally the 
temperature becomes so high as to cause other 



High-yielding - wheat in Colorado. 

chemical changes within the kernels, the result is 
what is commonly known to the grain trade as heat- 
damaged or 'bin-burnt' wheat. This injury may 
extend simply into the branny coats and produce 
slightly heat-damaged or 'bran-burnt' wheat, or it 



Wheat as a Money Crop 231 

may extend throughout the endosperm and pro- 
duce badly heat-damaged or 'bin-burnt' kernels. 
Wheat in this last condition is practically unfit for 
flour-making purposes. 

"There is little evidence as to whether this 
change or sweat which takes place in the bin is 
identical with that which takes place in the stack. 
It at least appears to have much the same effect on 
the milling and baking qualities, provided the wheat 
is not allowed to heat enough to become injured or 
'bin-burnt.' 

Stacked Wheat is Easier to Thresh 

"If the farmer who properly stacks his wheat 
secures it against further loss from exposure to 
weather, while the one who allows his grain to 
stand in the shock from three to six weeks, waiting 
for the thresher, runs the risk of having it deterior- 
ate from No. 1 or No. 2 to No. 4 or even to 'no 
grade.' 

"Another gain which may result from properly 
stacking wheat is that it will come out of the stack 
dry and thresh out clean from chaff, thus prevent- 
ing the loss sustained when threshing bundles that 
are damp and tough from rain or dew. With the 
bundles in this damp condition, considerable wheat 
remains in the heads or is blown over as 'whitecaps,' 



232 Making Money on Farm Crops 

and goes to the straw pile. This is usually a total 
loss, as much of the straw in the Great Plains area 
is burned. 

"Improvement in the quality and ^condition of 
the wheat is not the only benefit derived from stack- 
ing the crop. In addition to making the crop safe 
should several heavy rains come after harvest, 
which would prevent threshing and cause rapid de- 
terioration, the stack-threshed grain can be placed 
in tight bins and kept, or it can be shipped direct 
to market without imminent danger of heating and 
spoiling* in transit. Also, the shocks are removed 
from the field, so that plowing may be begun at 
once, and all good farmers readily agree that such 
early plowing is productive of good results in the 
next year's crop." 

Relation of Moisture Content to Test Weight 

There is a close relation to the rate of increase 
in the moisture content and the decrease in the test 
weight. This relation is not constant, but it is 
enough so that it can be counted on. And more than 
this : If there has been an increase in the moisture 
content, with a corresponding decrease in the test 
weight, a complete reverse action is not possible. 
Therefore, if the grain has been damaged by ex- 
posure or by being stored under improper condi- 



Wheat as a Money Crop 



233 



tions, it never will be so good as it was. The moral 
of this is obvious : Handle the grain properly if 
you desire the best price. 

But when the wheat is threshed, no matter 
whether from the shock or the stack, be certain of 
the men you have doing the pitching. Many thou- 
sands of bushels of grain go through threshing ma- 




Threshing in Kansas. 

chines and on the strawpiles every year because of 
"bonehead" pitching into the machine. No make 
of separator can do good work if the pitchers are 
slugging it all the time. For one thing, the sepa- 
rator man can not keep the concaves screwed up 



234 Making Money on Farm Crops 

tight, for if he did, he would have to buy cylinder 
teeth by the thousand. All he can do, when he 
strikes an especially rotten bunch of pitchers, is to 
let the concaves down, in order to keep his machine 
going at all. As a result, the grain is -not knocked 
out of the heads. Then, even if it is knocked out 
of the heads, no machine can do a good job of sepa- 
ration if the grain is coming in bunches. 

How to Feed Bundles Into the Feeder 

Feed the bundles into the feeder in two rows, 
with the heads of a bundle on one side even with 
the band on a bundle on the opposite side. Always 
feed the bundles in heads first, to allow the cylinder 
a better chance to knock the grain out of the heads, 
as the bundles go through. If the bundles are fed 
into the machine in this way, in a steady, uniform 
manner, the separator man can put the concaves up 
tight, and the machine will have a chance to knock 
out the grain. Finally, always get men to do the 
pitching that you can depend on. For example, it 
is easy for pitchers who understand the proposition 
to choke up a machine, if they wish to, especially if 
the bundles are a little damp. Many of the stops 
with some machines are caused in just this way, and 
in others the machine is choked down as a result of 
just plain ignorance on the part of the pitchers, 



Wheat as a Money Crop 



a as 



Feed the grain into the machine properly, and give 
the separator a chance. If this is done, there will 
not be nearly so many green strawstacks on the 
farms in the fall. 

In Regard to Selling Wheat 

Market manipulation of prices has been reduced 
to a science, and an effort always is made by spec- 
ulators, who never have grown a bushel of wheat 
and do not intend to, to make a living from profits 
that should go to the growers. And they do, too, 




The man who has a bin is not affected by market manipulation 
at harvest time. 

aided by this almost criminal lack of business judg- 
ment which leads men to "dump" their wheat as 
soon, as it is grown. There is not the slightest use 



236 Making Money on Farm Crops 

of all this mad scramble to sell the wheat crop 
every year, for the growers who hold their wheat 
make money by doing so. But you advance the old, 
time-frazzled explanation and excuse that "the farm- 
ers need the money?" Well, what of it? To begin 
with, not more than 25 per cent of the bell flock 
who "dump" their wheat really need the money, 
and those who do> easily can borrow it with the 
wheat as security. Wheat is good security. 

What is needed is more wheat bins on the farms. 
The grain then can be stored until the growers are 
ready to sell, and the roads are in good condition. 
When a grower has storage space for the grain he 
produces, he is much more independent than if he 
did not have this space. Good wheat bins are not 
expensive. 

The History of Wheat 

Wheat was cultivated in Egypt at least 5260 
years ago. At least some grains of the bread plant 
were found in a brick taken from the pyramid of 
Dasher, built in 3359 B. C. Many of the writings 
on the oldest monuments of that country tell of the 
growing of wheat. The Egyptians called it "br." 
It was smaller grained than modern wheat. There 
are many accounts of wheat grain taken from mum- 
mies, and these grains have been planted, but they 
never have eerminated. 



Wheat as a Money Crop 



23' 



The Chinese also cultivated wheat many years 
ago. In 2700 B. C. they instituted an annual cere- 
mony, in which the emperor and the princes took 
part, in the sowing of five kinds of seed, and wheat 
was one of the grains. Lake-dwellers in ancient 
Switzerland grew wheat, and they called it "Triti- 




The start of the trip to the "ultimate consumer. 



cum vulgare compactum muticum," which was about 
all the ancients could manage. Just where wheat 
first originated is an unsettled question, but most 
of the evidence points to the Euphrates valley, 
w r hich was the original home of man. From there 
it has spread over the world, and is the most im- 
portant bread crop, today. 



CHAPTER VIII. 
OATS ON CORNBELT FARMS 



CHAPTER VIII. 
OATS ON CORNBELT FARMS 

Place of Oats in the Rotation 

The Preparation of the Seedbed 

Oats for Semi-Arid Conditions 

Cleaning and Grading the Seed 

Rate of Seeding 

Oats Should Be Drilled 

When to Harvest 

Enemies of Oats 

Formalin Treatment for Smut 

Marketing Oats 

Preparation for Market 

Feeding Value of Oats 

Oats for Dairy Cows 

Utilization of Oats Straw 

Oats Crop of the World 



CHAPTER VIII. 

OATS ON CORNBELT FARMS 

Oats is the best horse feed. Its value for colts 
is especially great, and animals fed a liberal grain 
ration always have a better coat, and will stand 
work better than those that do not get oats. For 
these reasons, there should be an extension of the 
acreage of oats in the corn belt. 

The commercial oats of the country should be 
produced in sections especially adapted to their 
growth. At the prevailing- prices, farmers in the 
corn belt can not make so much profit from oats if 
they are sold on the market as they can from other 
crops, because if the oats are sold into the markets 
of the world they have to compete with the crops 
raised in sections where the moisture and soil con- 
ditions are especially favorable for oats production. 
So as a commercial grain, oats should be grown in 
sections where high yields of heavy oats is the rule, 
and the growing of this crop in other sections should 
be for furnishing feed for animals. And for this 
purpose it should be considered one of the essential 
crops of corn belt farms. 



243 



Making Money on Farm Crops 



Place of Oats in the Rotation 

Oats is especially adapted to growing between 
corn and wheat in the rotation. In arranging the 
rotation, remember this : If there are any natural 
barriers on your land to the spread of chinch bugs, 
such as creeks, get them between the wheat fields 
and the oats fields if possible, for this crop usually 
ripens after wheat, and many times chinch bugs 







mKam 



E^^Wm 




illlll : - : ililiii 



•eshing- oats in Montana. 



will move from the wheat after it has been cut, and 
do serious damage to the oats. As a nurse crop for 
clover and other legumes and grasses, oats is not 
so good as wheat. It is, however, used for this pur- 
pose some, notably in Illinois. Wheat ripens so it 
allows the grass or legume crop to become some- 
what used to the sun before the wheat is cut, and 
oats does not do this to so great an extent. 

Oats is somewhat similar to wheat in habit of 



Oats on Cornbelt Farms 243 

growth. The culms, or stalks, are larger, and the 
tissue is softer. The height of the plant varies 
markedly with the fertility of the soil. The leg-al 
weight of a bushel of oats in the United States is 
32 pounds, except in Idaho, where it is 36 ; Maine, 
Virginia and New Jersey, where it is 30, and in 
Maryland where it is 26. The legal weight in Can- 
ada is 34 pounds. The weight varies all the way 
from about 24 pounds to twice that, and usually will 
vary in every locality every year, except in some 
regions especially adapted to growing oats. 

The Preparation of the Seedbed 

Do not sow oats on land that has an excessively 
large amount of nitrogen present, or the crop will 
lodge, or fall down. This is an important point, 
for there is considerable loss every year in just this 
way. Take, for example, in fields along the creeks 
of the Middle West: Oats usually will grow well 
enough there on the main part of a field, but there 
usually is land along the creek banks where the sup- 
ply of available nitrogen is too great, and the crop 
falls down. Where this is the case, such land should 
be planted to corn for which it is especially adapted. 

The type of soil, if the land is not too rich, is 
of less importance with oats than with other crops. 
This crop does best on loam or clay soils, largely 
on account of the superior water-holding capacity of 



244 



Making Money on Farm Crops 



these soils. Oats require considerable moisture, but 
that does not mean they should be planted on ex- 
cessively wet land. 

Plow the land for oats in the fall, if possible. 
While plowing the land in the spring is a common, 
it does not produce yields nearly so large as fall 
plowed land. This is because there is not time for 
the soil to become compact, and in good condition 
for the crop. Oats do best in a rather firm seed- 
bed, with an inch or two of mellow soil to top. 




Seedbed preparation on a big scale in the West. 

This mellow soil allows the air to get to the seeds, 
it absorbs the heat of the sun readily, and is favor- 
able for the germination of the plants. 

Frequently, where the preparation of the seedbed 
is delayed until spring, it is possible to prepare a fair 



Oats on Cornbelt Farms 245 

seedbed by disking. The seedbed does not have to 
be deep, as this is one of the most shallow-rooted 
crops. Do a thorough job of disking; sometimes a 
double-disking is enough, but frequently more culti- 
vation will pay well. 

Oats Seed 

At the Kansas station, the leading varieties of 
oats are : Red Texas, which has yielded an average 
of fifty-one bushels an acre ; Sixty-day, forty-five 
bushels ; Kherson, forty-four bushels, and Burt, 
forty-one. The seed should be drilled in the spring 
about as early as the ground can be worked. There 
are winter varieties of oats that are a success in 
the South, but their value in the middle northern 
states remains to be demonstrated yet, when they 
are compared with spring varieties. 

Oats for Semi-Arid Conditions 

There are a number of spring varieties of oats 
that withstand drought to a marked degree. Among 
the most promising are Sixty-Day, Kherson, Burt, 
and Swedish Select. These varieties are usually 
quick growers ; hence they are able to use to the best 
advantage the early spring moisture and by matur- 
ing early escape to a considerable extent the severe 
droughts which occur later in the season. The best 
basis for recommendations as to varieties for anv 



246 .Making Money on Farm Crops 

given section is furnished by the variety trials con- 
ducted by the agricultural experiment stations, but 
these can not always be taken as a guide, as vari- 
eties which do well on the type of soil represented 
by the station may not succeed on some other type 
of soil in the same state. 

Cleaning and Grading the Seed 

Seed oats should be carefully screened and 
graded before sowing. This work is ordinarily done 
with the fanning mill, the light oats and some of the 
trash being taken out by a current of air, while the 
small oats and most of the weed seeds are removed 
by screens. The process should take out one-third 
or one-fourth of the oats, but if the seed is light, a 
much larger proportion should be removed by the 
fans. Many of the small, light oats will not germi- 
nate at all, while others produce weak plants, which 
materially reduce the yield. Screening also greatly 
reduces the proportion of weed seed, thus prevent- 
ing the spread of weeds and further favoring the 
growth of the oats crop. 

Experimental tests of graded seed naturally fall 
into two classes, one in which the same weight or 
measure of all the different grades of seed is sown, 
and one in which the same number of seeds is sown 
on the different plats. Most of the tests belong to. 



Oats on Cornbelt Farms 



247 



the first class, in which the same rate of seeding 
by weight is used for all grades. In a test of this 
kind which was conducted for eight years at the 
Kansas station, heavy seed gave an average yield of 








The last load. 



30.9 bushels to the acre, common seed 29.9 bushels, 
and light seed 27.5 bushels. The common seed used 
was the seed as it came from the thresher, the light 
and heavy grades being obtained by running the 



seed through a fanning mill. 



These grades were 



248 Making Money on Farm Crops 

usually taken from the ordinary seed, but in the last 
year of the experiment, when the greatest difference 
was noted, the heavy seed was taken from the heavy 
grade of the previous year and the light seed from 
the light grade. In an experiment conducted at the 
Ohio station for seven years average yields of -46,3, 
44.8, and 42.6 bushels were obtained from the heavy, 
common, and light seed. The yield of straw and 
the weight were both slightly heavier from the heavy 
seed than from either of the other grades. 

At the Ontario, Canada, Experimental Farm 
even more marked results in favor of large seed were 
secured, using the same number of grains of each 
grade to the acre. In a seven-year test average 
yields of 62, 54.1 and 46.6 bushels to the acre were 
obtained from heavy, medium and light seeds, re- 
spectively. In a test in which the heavy seed was 
selected from the heavy grade and the light seed 
from the light grade of the previous year, the differ- 
ence in yield and in weight in favor of the heavy 
seed continually increased. The test was conducted 
for twelve years. The difference in weight in favor 
of the heavy seed in the first four-year period was 
3.2 pounds to the bushel, in the second period six 
pounds, and in the third period 9.5 pounds. The dif- 
ferences in yield an acre were 10.4, 15.8, and 22A 
bushels, respectively, for the three periods. 



Oats on Cornbelt Farms 249 

Rate of Seeding 

The rate of seeding depends on the locality, the 
condition and fertility of the soil, the method of 
seeding and the size of the seed. As with other 
crops, less seed is required in dry than in humid sec- 
tions. Fertile soils require less seed than poor ones, 
as on rich land the plants grow larger and tiller 
more. More seed should be sown on weedy land or 
on land not well prepared than on clean, mellow soil. 
Drilling requires less seed than sowing broadcast. 
More bushels of large-grained than of small-grained 
oats should be sown on an acre. The number of 
grains in a measured bushel of oats ranges from 
500,000 to 750,000, according to the variety. The 
large-grained varieties usually grow ranker, and 
the plants occupy more space than the small-grained 
ones, but the difference in the size of the plants does 
not equalize the difference in thickness of stand 
caused by the greater number of plants produced by 
a bushel of small-grained oats. 

In general, the rate of seeding in the upper Mis- 
sissippi Valley ranges from eight to twelve pecks to 
the acre, but in the drier sections of the West this 
rate is reduced by half. In the irrigated sections six 
to eight pecks is the common rate. Where the usual 
rate in broadcast seeding is twelve pecks, ten pecks 
will be sufficient if the seed is drilled. 



250 



Making Money on Farm Crops 



Oats Should Be Drilled 

The seed cannot be put in with a drill if the 
ground is not well prepared. From one to two 
inches is the best depth for planting. The depth of 
planting does not affect the yield much, even if it 
is deeper than the figures mentioned, but there no 
reason for putting the seed down in the ground 



4 **l^"« 

liters ' 



if«li; 



WSmXmS& 






Between acts in the drama of harvest. 

where much of the stored energy must be used in 
getting to the surface. The drilling of the seed is 
more important than it usually is supposed to be 
among farmers. The Kansas station has found 
there is a difference of from three to four bushels, 
on an average, in the yields of oats sown with a 
drill and those sown broadcast. 



Oats on Cornbelt Farms 



251 



When to Harvest 

Through much of the West, rust is one of the 
worst oats diseases, and causes serious loss. The 
main thing to do to prevent this disease is to grow 
varieties that are as nearly rust-proof as possible. 
The Red Texas variety is fairly rust-proof in Mis- 
souri. When rust gets in oats bad, about the best 
thing one can do is to cut them at once. The rust 
weakens the plant materially, so if there is a wet 




Place oats bundles in long shocks. 



period, the plants usually will fall down, and the 
crop then will be lost. But if the rust does not get 
in the crop, it should be cut in the hard dough stage. 
Frequently, the crop is cut in the milk stage, and 
the resulting hay is used without threshing. This 



252 Making Money on Farm Crops 

produces a feed that has considerable value, and is 
a method especially good where there is some dif- 
ficulty in getting the crop threshed. 

Shock the oats in long shocks, with two bundles 
opposite each other. Proper shocking is important, 
and is harder to learn than proper shocking for 
wheat. The stems, on account of their soft structure 
and high percentage of water, are hard to cure, and 
frequently much loss occurs on account of stacking 
before they have cured properly. Setting the bundles 
up properly is an art too few farmers have learned. 
The bundles must be set so the heads fit in properly, 
but not so' they lean so much that they are apt to 
twist out of shape. 

The same principles will apply to threshing this 
crop as apply to wheat, and the same special care 
should be given to pitching the bundles into the 
feeder. Few separators get the grain out of the 
straw that they would get, if the bundles were fed 
into the machine properly. 

Enemies of Oats 

Weeds frequently damage this crop, for, like all 
spring-planted grains, weeds have a good chance to 
grow, especially if the crop starts slowly. Wild 
mustard is one of the principal weed enemies, and it 
may be eradicated by spraying at the rate of fifty 



Oats on Cornbelt Farms 253 

gallons to the acre with a three per cent solution of 
copper sulphate. 

There is no remedy for rust except the one that 
has been given ; which is to get a variety as nearly 
rust-proof as possible. Not so, however, with smut. 
Smut in oats easily may be controlled by treating 
with a formalin solution. At the Illinois Experi- 
ment Station experiments have been carried on with 
treated and untreated seed for many years, and but 
44 per cent of the treated plats ever showed any 
loss at all, and the damage, in every case, was 
slight. On the untreated plats grown under the same 
conditions, the damage has been from one-fourth of 
a bushel to thirteen bushels of grain, and a lowered 
quality every year. Therefore it is quite evident 
that it will pay well, when considered on the law of 
the average, to treat oats seed. 

Formalin Treatment for Smut 

To make the solution, use one pound of forty per 
cent formalin to forty gallons of water. Mix well by 
stirring. Spread a layer of oats on a tight floor or 
in a wagon box to a depth of about four inches. 
Sprinkle the top of the pile with the solution, stir the 
oats, and repeat the process until all the grain is 
dampened thoroughly. When the grains are damp- 
ened properly, shovel the grain into a pile, and cover 



254 Making Money on Farm Crops 

with an old blanket or a canvas. Leave the pile 
covered for twelve hours, and then sow. 

Chinch bugs and grasshoppers are the worst in- 
sects that attack this plant. One should be espe- 
cially careful in regard to chinch bugs. These will 
go from wheat fields to the oats fields when the 
wheat is cut, and they may seriously damage an oats 
crop after the wheat has been injured. Tar or dust 
lines should be constructed to keep them out. 

Marketing Oats 

The greater portion of the oats crop of the United 
States is fed on the farms where it is grown. Ac- 
cording to the figures of the bureau of statistics of 
the U. S. Department of Agriculture, in the ten 
years from 1900 to 1909, 28.7 per cent of the crop vas 
shipped out of the county where it was grown. The 
average annual shipment for the ten years was 246,- 
000,000 bushels. The smallest proporton of the crop 
shipped out of the county where grown was of the 
small crop of 1901, 19.5 per cent, and the largest pro- 
portion was of the crop of 1909, the largest crop on 
record, 32.7 per cent. The largest shipment of any 
one crop was of that of 1909, nearly 330,000,000 
bushels. 

Preparation for Market 

The grade of oats can often be raised by running; 
the grain through a fanning mill, removing the dirt, 



Oats on Cornbelt Farms 



255 



trash, weed seeds and light oats. Little attention 
is paid to the matter of dirt in market oats, however, 
either at country elevators or at the central markets, 
so that at present the farmer is hardly justified in 
cleaning his grain before marketing. Oats are oc- 
casionally clipped to increase the weight and the 




market price. By this process, a portion of the hull 
is removed from the tip of the grain, but as special 
machinery is required it is little used except in ele- 
vators. Bleaching with sulphur fumes or other 
chemical means is sometimes used in elevators to 
improve the appearance of oats. By this process 
grain which has been discolored from weathering or 



256 



Making Money on Farm Crops 



from heating in stack or bin is rendered bright and 
white in appearance. While it is probable that the 
bleaching process causes little damage to the feeding 
value of the grain, its germination is often materi- 
ally lowered, and bleached or purified grain should 
never be bought for seed without a satisfactory 
germination test. As weathering or heating usually 
diminishes the feeding value of grain, chemically 
purified grain is ordinarily somewhat lower in that 
respect than its appearance indicates. 

Feeding Value of Oats 

Both oats straw and grain have a high feeding 

value, if they are handled properly. 

DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS IN OATS, OAT STRAW, 

AND OAT HAY, AS COMPARED WITH OTHER 

GRAINS AND GRAIN PRODUCTS. 



MATERIAL. 



as I 



Digestible nutrients in 
100 pounds. 



Protein. Carbo- 
hydrates 



Fat. 



Gram: 

Oats 

Wheat 

Barley 

Corn 

Roughage: 

Oat Straw . . 

Wheat straw 

Barley straw 

Rye straw . . 

Corn stover . 
Hay: 

Oat Hay 

Timothy hay 



lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


89.0 


9.2 


47.3 


89.5 


10.2 


69.2 


89.1 


8.7 


65.6 


89.1 


7.9 


66.7 


90.8 


1.2 


38.6 


90.1 


.4 


36.3 


85.8 


.7 


41.2 


92.9 


.6 


40.6 


59.5 


1.7 


32.4 


91.1 


4.3 


46.4 


8G.8 


2.8 


43.4 



lbs. 
4.2 
1.7 
1.6 
4.3 



1.5 

1.4 



Oats on Cornbelt Farms 257 

Oats are higher in protein than corn and about 
equal to wheat and barley. They are higher in ash 
than any of the other grains, and considerably higher 
in fat than either barley or wheat. On account of the 
hulls, oats contain the highest percentage of crude 
fiber, an undesirable element. Oat straw contains 
more protein and more fat than corn stover or the 
straw of any other small grain, according to C. W, 
Wiarburton of the U. S. Department of Agriculture. 

By far the larger part of the oats crop is fed to 
horses. It usually is fed whole. In the feeding of 
young colts and older animals with poor teeth, 
grinding or crushing the grain is of benefit. Musty 
grain should never be fed to stock. New oats should 
be fed with caution, as they are likely to have a de- 
cidedly loosening effect on the bowels. When oats 
are high in price, corn or other grains can be substi- 
tuted in part in the ration for horses. 

Oats for Dairy Cows 

The high protein content and readily digestible 
nature of oats make them an excellent feed for dairy 
cows. Often, however, they are too high in price to 
feed with profit. According to a test conducted by 
the Wisconsin station, oats, pound for pound, are 
somewhat more valuable than bran for milk produc- 
tion. On this basis, with bran at $25 a ton, oats are 
worth forty-four cents a bushel for dairy cows. The 



258 Making Money on Farm Crops 

grain is usually fed whole, though it is sometimes 
crushed or ground or fed in the form of corn and oat 
feeds. Some of the prepared feeds bearing this 
name, however, contain a large percentage of oat 
hulls and little of the grain. Oats are excellent for 
feeding to calves, particularly to those of the dairy 
breeds. They seldom form an important part of the 
ration of fattening cattle. 

Oats are valuable for feeding to sheep, particu- 
larly to growing lambs and to ewes. While experi- 
ments show that this grain is only a little lower in 
feeding value than corn for fattening sheep, better 
results will be obtained by feeding corn and oats 
mixed than oats alone. Oats are usually fed un- 
ground. Breeding ewes should be fed a half pound 
of oats, bran, or peas daily, the selection of the grain 
depending on the availability and the relative prices 
of the different feeds. Sheaf oats make good feed 
for sheep as well as for other stock. Ground oats 
can be fed to young lambs with excellent results. 

Utilization of Oats Straw 

Oat straw is quite largely used for feeding to 
horses, cattle, and sheep. As a part of a main- 
tenance ration, it is of considerable value, being 
nearly equal to corn stover (the stalks with the ears 
removed). If the straw is of good quality there will 



Oats on Cornbelt Farms 



259 



be less waste in feeding than with stover. It is 
higher in feeding value and more palatable than the 
straw from any other small grain. A common prac- 
tice in feeding oats straw is to allow the animals to 
run to the stack at will. This is wasteful when 




lite 

W9 










K'WmffU 

Stack oats straw carefully, and save all the feed possible. 

roughage is high in price, as much of the straw will 
be trampled under foot and worked into the manure. 
A better plan is to feed the straw from mangers or 
open racks, as there is much less waste from feeding 
in this way. 

Oats Crop of the World 
The oats crop of the world is nearly 3,700,000,000 
bushels annually, most of which is produced in 



260 Making Money on Farm Crops 

Europe and North America. The principal oats-pro- 
ducing countries are the United States, European 
Russia, Germany, France , and Canada. In the 
United States the greater portion of the crop is 
grown in the upper Mississippi Valley. Illinois, 
Iowa, Wisconsin, Minnesota, and Nebraska are the 
leading states in the production of oats. The annual 
crop of the United States is about 900,000,000 
bushels. 



CHAPTER IX. 
THE SORGHUMS 



CHAPTER IX. 
THE SORGHUMS 

Soils for Kafir 

In Regard to the Seed 

When You Thresh Kafir 

Kafir as a Feed 

In Growing Milo 

Distribution of Milo 

Rate of Planting Milo 



CHAPTER IX. 

THE SORGHUMS 

Kafir, which now is the commonly accepted 
name of this crop instead of kafir corn, is a plant of 
comparatively recent introduction. In plant food 
requirements and feeding value it is somewhat simi- 
lar to corn, but it will produce larger crops on poor- 
er soils and with less moisture. That has made it 
a crop especially adapted to semi-arid conditions, 
and to thin upland soils that will not produce a large 
yield of corn. During a drought, the leaves curl up 
and the plant will stand almost dormant until more 
moisture comes, and it then will grow almost as well 
as before. This is an important property corn does 
not possess. The leaves have the power of closing 
the openings tighter, so the plant tissues are not so 
much injured by hot winds. 

Kansas is the banner kafir state, with about two 
million acres, and Butler county is the principal 
kafir county in that state, with an acreage of almost 
a hundred thousand acres. Kafir is the principal 
crop of that section, and at Eldorado, in that county 



264 



Making Money on Farm Crops 



a kafir festival, or fair, is held every fall that is the 
most complete thing of its kind in the world. Kafir 



111 



1 




^nf^^^^^^^^S^^^^B 



Mill 



A field of high-class kafir. Note that the heads are uniform; 
the seed is pure. 



was introduced into the United States about twenty- 
five years ago. 



The Sorghums 265 

Soils for Kafir 

Kafir will grow on almost all soils, but it will 
do the best, of course, on deep, fertile loams. It will 
do well, however, even on thin upland soils, for it is 
able to make a better utilization of available plant 
food than is corn. It does not get more plant food 
and moisture by making a deeper growth, for on the 
contrary, this is a shallow-rooted crop, more so than 
corn. The roots are all in the first three feet, and 
most of them in the first eighteen inches of soil. It 
is drought resistant because of the remarkable de- 
velopment of fibrous roots in the top soil. This 
enables the plant to ger about all the moisture in the 
land. 

But kafir is not especially "hard" on land. It is 
no more so than corn. It is true that a crop like 
corn that is planted early in the spring does not do 
well after kafir, and the reason is this : Kafir grows 
late in the fall, and exhausts the land of moisture and 
available plant food, and as the winter comes soon 
and stops the development of soluble nitrates, there 
is a deficiency in the soil the next spring. The solu- 
ble nitrates will not develop until warm weather 
comes the following spring, and the land will break 
up cloddy so long as there is not a sufficient amount 
of moisture. Thus, early the next spring the land is 
in poor physical condition, and is lacking in avail- 



266 



Making Money on Farm Crops 



able plant food. The thing to do is to put this land 
in a crop like cowpeas that is planted late in the 
spring, after there has been time for a formation of 
soluble nitrates. 

Ground should be plowed deeply for kafir, and 
the seedbed should be as well prepared as for corn. 
Indeed, the killing of all weeds just before the seed 
is planted is even more important than for corn, for 




"Friends, Romans, countrymen. 



The Sorghums 267 

the plants make a much slower start. Frequently, 
tiie grour»d is planted in the fall and winter, and this 
is a good practice, for it gives the soil time to 
weather, and there is a much better development 
of plant food than if the plowing was done just be- 
fore the seed is planted. 

Do not be in a hui ry to plant the seed. Kafir 
will not make a good growth until the soil is well 
warmed; it is hard on the plants to be planted until 
the soil is thoroughly warmed, and if they are 
planted too soon the seed will rot in the ground. The 
plants will make a slow growth the first few weeks, 
anyway, and the weeds will get a good chance to 
cause trouble under the best conditions. 

In Regard to the Seed 

Plant pure seed. The average kafir field usually 
consists of a mixture of three types of kafir seed and 
some cane thrown in for variety. The yields in 
these fields are not so great as they would be if good 
seed was used. It is easy to get pure seed, and if you 
keep out the mixtures, such as those one gets in a 
threshing machine, it will stay pure. Smut dam- 
ages some of the kafir of the country every year, and 
to be on the safe side, the seed always should be 
treated. This is the way to do it : Heat the seed for 
fifteen minutes in water at a temperature of from 



268 



Making Money on Farm Crops 



132 to 134 degrees F., and the smut spores will be 
killed, while the seed will not be injured. Do not 
heat the seed higher than this, but it should be 
raised to that temperature or the smut spores may 
not be killed. Plant from six to eight pounds of 
seed an acre for both seed and forage. 

Cultivate kafir the same as corn. In the first 
few weeks of their life, the plants make a slow 
growth, and there is danger that grass and weeds 
may take the field. This is especially true if the 



m 



u^ 






>4 \i 

■il««ilili 





Preparing- for kafir. 



weather is damp, for the cultivators will thus be 
kept out of the field, and conditons will be good for 
a rapid growth of grass. -Keep the cultivators going 



The Sorghums 209 

all you can, and begin just as soon as you can after 
the plants come up. 

It requires from 110 to 135 days to properly ma- 
ture kafir. If the crop is planted late in the spring, 
this means it will not be ready to harvest until late 
in the fall. Much of the crop is cut with a corn 
binder, and that is one of the best ways to harvest 
it. If the binder is used, make small bundles, and 
shock them in small shocks; from twelve to fifteen 
bundles to the shock is enough. 

Most of the crop is headed in the fields with a 
wag"on box header, and the stalks then may be cut 
with a binder. After the seed is cut, it should be 
stored in covered sheds, so it will be protected from 
rain. Slat corn-cribs that are not wider than five 
feet and are covered are good places to store the 
seed until it is threshed. There should be no danger 
of heating with the seed stored in this way. Most of 
this complant every year about the heating of seed 
is caused by the seed being stored in too large 
quantities, or where it will not dry out. 

When You Thresh Kafir 

Kafir seed should be threshed without cracking 
it. Here is an important point about the threshing: 
Loosen up the machine and take out some of the 
concaves. If you do not do this, the seed will be 
cracked badly. Then clean the grain at once, and 



270 Making Money on Farm Crops 

remove all of the dirt and kafir flour that is in the 
seed, for this will cause heating if you do not. Kafir 
will ferment when it is heated. Well-cleaned seed 
will allow the air to circulate freely, and there will 
be no danger of heating. 

Kafir as a Feed 

Kafir will compare well with corn, so far as the 
feeding value is concerned. The following table 
shows the relative value of the two grains : 

Carbo- 

Protein hydrates Fat 

Indian corn 7.8 66.7 1.6 

Kafir corn 7.8 57.1 2.7 

From this it will be seen that kafir corn can take 
the place of Indian corn as a feed. For comparison 
in digestibility reference should be made to the table 
above and to the following one that gives the per- 
centage of digestibility of kafir corn nutrients : 

Dry Carbo- 

Matter Protein hydrates Fat 

Kafir corn seed 53 46 * 60 46 

Kafir corn fodder 61 38 66 61 

Kafir corn stover 57 34 60 75 

Much of the crop may be fed without heading or 
threshing, and cattle and horses do* well on this sort 
of feed, after they have time to get used to it. The 
grain should be fed separately to fattening animals. 
The grain is not quite so easy for the animals to 



The Sorghums 



271 



digest as corn. Kafir is splendidly adapted as a 
poultry feed. Figures recently furnished by thirty- 
three of the leading poultry feed companies of the 
country show a total annual output of thirty thou- 
sand tons, and more than ten thousand tons of kafir 
was used in this feed. 

In Growing Milo 

Milo, sometimes called milo maize, has been de- 
veloped rapidly in the last few years. When intro- 



i : -w--ry''' : ' ; ' : V:: ;: pp?; : | 


1 * A 


, M- gL_ ; |li ;s g||ii:#;ll 


111.-!' :* y ^S^M0^'^ ' 3 
» If 1 



In Missouri. 



duced into this country it had several very bad habits 
that rendered its general use unpopular. It stooled 



272 Making Money on Farm Crops 

too abundantly, the long "gooseneck" heads curled 
down and there was a rather abundant branching. 

In the past four or five years, the development of 
milo as a grain crop has been progressing rapidly 
along desirable lines. The carefully selected milo 
of today is a great improvement over the common, 
unselected crop. Ordinary milo has been reduced 
by selection to a uniform height of from four to 
four and one-half feet in the Plains regions lying at 
an elevation of 3,000 to 4,000 feet above sea level, or 
at an equivalent latitude. Through selection and 
thicker seeding, the heads have been changed from 
mostly pendent to mostly erect. All heads not lean- 
ing over more than thirty degrees from the perpen- 
dicular are classed as erect, since for all practical 
purposes they are erect. From seventy-five to 
ninety per cent have been brought to this position 
in different strains. 

Distribution of Milo 

C. R. Ball, in charge of the government sorghum 
investigations, in speaking of the distribution of 
milo, said : 

"Milo can be grown successfully on the lower 
plains of eastern Oklahoma, eastern Kansas, and 
southern Nebraska, where kafir varieties are now 
the leading grain sorghums. In this eastern section 



The Sorghums 273 

of the plains, corn is ordinarily a profitable crop, 
and the acreage of milo will depend on seasonable 
variations. In dry years, milo should be largely 
grown there, but in wet years it will be replaced by 
corn to a considerable extent. 

"It seems probable that the limits of successful 
production of milo can be rapidly extended north- 
ward and westward from the present area. In 1907 
milo was ripened at several points in eastern Colo- 
rado at elevations of 5,500 to 6,000 feet. It was 
fully matured at the agricultural experiment substa- 
tion at North Platte, in western Nebraska. 5 ' 

Rate of Planting Milo 

For the highest yields of grain, from five to six 
pounds of seed to the acre is sufficient, in rows three 
and one-half feet apart. Where the soil and mois- 
ture conditions are favorable thicker planting can be 
done. Several years' tests on the experimental farm 
of the Office of Grain Investigations, at Amarillo, in 
the northern part of the Texas Panhandle, show that 
one plant to every six inches of row gives the high- 
est grain yields under the average conditions ob- 
taining there. The soil on this farm is a good clay 
loam, the elevation is 3,600 feet above sea level, and 
the average annual rainfall about twenty-two inches. 
Four pounds of seed to the acre produce under these 



274 



Making Money on Farm Crops 



field conditions plants averaging six to eight inches 
apart — the desired stand. Thicker stands than this 
have generally been recommended for grain pro- 
duction, but are not desirable under Panhandle con- 
ditions. 

The cultivation and the harvesting will be 
largely the same as for kafir. 

Threshing is readily done in an ordinary grain 
separator. To avoid cracking a considerable pro- 




A "low-down" farm tractor. 



portion of the seed, the concaves may be replaced 
with boards or part of the concave and cylinder 
teeth removed. The speed of the cylinder should be 



The Sorghums 275 

reduced to about 600 revolutions a minute. Where 
the threshed seed is intended for feeding to stock, 
there is no objection if much of it has been cracked 
in threshing. In fact, milo is usually cracked or 




Farm tractors are efficient. Power may be applied for all pur- 
poses, both at the draw-bar and the belt. 

ground before being fed to stock, because otherwise 
much of it passes through the cattle without being 
digested. But where intended for use as seed grain 
it is, of course worthless if cracked. 

The sorghums are a valuable group of plants, 
especially for that section of the country where rain- 
fall is apt to be scant, and are adapted to such a 
wide variety of uses that a greater acreage would be 
profitable. 



INDEX 



Page 

Alfalfa — Acid in soil 72 

Bacteria 73 

Bacteria, supplying- to soil 74 

Baling- 86 

Barns for 83 

Breeding 63 

Cutting 80 

Curing the hay 82 

Digestibility of 101 

Disking 79 

Disking seed-bed 75 

Enemies of 91 

Feeding value 99 

For hogs 100 

For horses 100 

Getting a stand 71 

Grades of 88 

Grasshoppers in 91 

Hay, composition of 101 

Hay, loss by weathering 103 

Hay measuring 90 

Hay, moisture content. . 90 

Hay worm 92 

History of 104 

Lime for 80 

Manuring soil 73 

Nutritive ratios 102 

Production 69 

Protein content 99 

Seed 76 

Seed production 92 

Seed, when to cut 96 

Soils for 72 

Sowing 77 

Stacking 84 

Storing bales 89 

Storing the hay 83 

Straw, composition of . . . 98 

When to cut ' 74 

Carbon bisulphide 150 

Cement drains 42 

Chinch bugs 222 

Chinch bugs in oats 2 54 

Clover, adaptations of 107 

Animals bloating on 127 

Alsike 138 

As a feed 129 

Composition of 130 



Page 

Enemies 135 

For ensilage 125 

Fungous diseases 137 

For pasture 127 

For seed 130 

For seed, clipping first 

crop 131 

Getting the stand 113 

Hay "mow burning" . . . .119 

Hay worm 136 

Hay, storing 119 

Hay sheds 124 

How to grow 105 

Huller 134 

Clover insects 132 

Inoculation for 117 

In the rotation 109 

Leaf diseases 137 

Mammoth 137 

Medium red 112 

Medium red, when to cut 117 

Potash for 109 

Protein in 118 

Raking the hay 118 

Rust 137 

Root borer 135 

Seed, trefoil in 116 

Seed 114 

Seed, germination test.. 115 

Soils for 108 

Sowing the seed Ill 

As a soiling crop 126 

Straw 134 

White 139 

White, for lawn 140 

White, blooming period. .139 

Commercial fertilizer, use of 30 

Corn, Boone County White 55 

Breeding for protein .... 55 

Caring for the seed 58 

Checking 172 

Cultivation of 174 

Depth of plowing for. . . .167 

Depth of cultivation 174 

Ear worm 193 

Growing for profit 157 

Importance of 159 

Insect enemies 192 



278 



Index 



Page 

Insects 194 

Judging 194 

Land plowed in fall 166 

Learning 54 

Listing 169 

Rate of planting 170 

Rotations 166 

Seed-bed preparation ...169 

Seed, gathering the 160 

Seed selection 159 

Curing the seed 162 

Seed "blood lines" 159 

Seed ears 162 

Seed, testing 164 

Seed selection 56 

Shrinkage of 190 

Silage 177 

Smut 191 

Soils 165 

Sub-soiling for 168 

Time of planting 170 

Thickness of planting. . .172 

"Variety names 173 

Weight of 191 

Cowpeas, adaptations of... 143 

After wheat 150 

As a catch crop 150 

As a green manure crop 37 

As a rotation crop 141 

Bacteria 143 

Cultivation 146 

Effect on a following 

wheat crop 38 

Feeding value 152 

For seed 148 

For silage 153 

For pasture 151 

For green manure 150 

Harvesting 147 

Hay, stacking 148 

Hay, curing 147 

In semi-arid conditions 151 

In corn rows 153 

Planting 144 

Seed 145 

Seed, threshing 14 8 

Seed weevil 149 

Seed-bed 144 

Varieties 155 

Width of rows 145 

Crop rotation 19 

Crop breeding 52 

Curing rack for corn 163 

Drains 42 

Protecting outlets 45 

Drainage helps 40 

In relation to drought... 40 
Effects of 43 



Page 
Farm crops, improvement 

of 49 

Fanning mill 67 

Fertilizers, complete 31 

Proper use of 35 

Testing soils for 33 

Green manures 37 

Hay presses 87 

Heredity of crops 51 

Hessian fly 223 

Hogs of cowpea pastures. .151 

Kafir 263 

As a feed 270 

Cultivation 268 

Effects on soils 265 

Harvesting 269 

Introduction of 264 

Roots 265 

Seed-bed for 266 

Seed 267 

Soils 265 

Smut 267 

Threshing 269 

Kansas, the banner kafir 

state 263 

Legumes, acid soil for 20 

Increased acreage 18 

Need of 17 

Availability 26 

Composition 25 

Limestone crushers 24 

Ground 25 

On Illinois soils 23 

Lime, air-slaked 28 

Burned 27 

Classification 25 

Effect on organic matter 2 5 

Effect on plants 30 

Equivalent weights 28 

Hydrated 28 

Influence of 21 

Methods of application.. 23 

Plants in relation to 29 

Test for need 22 

Litmus test for soil acidity 20 
Magnesium carbonate .... 26 

Manure 47 

Mice in seed corn 162 

Milo 271 

As a grain crop 272 

Distribution of 272 

Harvesting 274 

Rate of planting 273 

Mowing machines 133 

Nitrogen for corn 165 

Get from air 31 

From legumes 36 

Oats, bleached 255 

Cleaning the seed 246 



Index 



279 



Page 

Commercial 241 

Crop 259 

Drilling 1 250 

Enemies of 252 

Feeding value 256 

For semi-arid conditions 245 

For sheep 258 

For dairy cattle 257 

Make long shocks 252 

Marketing 254 

On corn belt farms 239 

Place of 242 

Preparation of the seed- 
bed 243 

Preparation for market. .254 

Rate of seeding 249 

Seed 245 

Smut 253 

Straw . . .• 258 

Use fanning mill 246 

When to harvest 251 

Organic matter, effect of 

lime on 21 

Phosphorus 32 

Plant breeding 53 

Pole stacker 120 

Potassium 32 

In relation to lime 21 

Seed, treating of 64 

Shredding, cost of 187 

Shredding stover 185 

Silage cutters 183 

Silage for horses 185 

For chickens 184 

Silos, building 182 

Capacities of 183 

Cement 180 

Cost 181 

Kind to build 178 

Profits from 177 

Stave 180 

Smut in wheat 66 

Losses from 65 

Soil management 48 

Soils, flocculation of 21 

Muck 32 

Potassium in 32 



Page 

Sorghums, The 2 61 

Value of 275 

Spontaneous combustion ..125 

Stack covers 84 

Swales 44 

Tiles, cement, cost cf 46 

Drain land quickly 46 

Water, stagnant 41 

Wheat, adaptations of va- 
rieties 213 

Amount of seed 217 

As a money crop 199 

Bins 236 

Bin-burnt 230 

Breeding of 59 

Cap the shocks 226 

Change in hardness 215 

Cleaning separator 216 

Disking the soil 209 

Durum 213 

Enemies of 218 

Exposure of 227 

Feeding separator 233 

Fertilizers 203 

Fife 61 

History of 236 

Increase due to cowpeas. 38 

Insect enemies 221 

Milling tests 59 

Mixing varieties 60 

Moisture content 232 

Opportunities in seed 

production 61 

Rotations 202 

Rust 220 

Seed-bed preparation ..205 

Selling 235 

Smut 220 

Soils, phosphorus for.... 204 

Soils 201 

Stacked 231 

Summer fallowing 211 

"Sweat" 228 

Table showing yields. ... 39 

Threshing 226 

Use disk on seed-bed . . .210 
Yields 212 



The Fruit-Growers Guide-Book 

tells how to make more money from fruit. The main 
purpose of the author in writing the book was to set 
forth the most profitable methods of raising fruit. 

E. H. Favor, horticultural editor of The Fruit-Grower 
and Farmer, is the author. The volume consists of 288 
pages with 60 illustrations, many of them full page. It 
is handsomely bound in cloth, and is a fine book for the 
library table. 

YOU ARE SURE OF A PROFIT 

if you follow the instructions of this essential guide. It 
tells how high-grade fruit may be produced at the least 
possible cost. It gives the proper ways to handle fruit 
trees from the time they are set until the fruit is sold. 

Do you know just the soils that are adapted to the 
different fruit crops? How the land should be prepared 
before the fruit trees or vines are set? Can you mix all 
the sprays, and vary the solutions properly for the various 
insects and diseases? THIS BOOK TELLS ALL THIS. 

In this book, the most profitable practices of prun- 
ing, thinning and cultivation are described. The chap- 
ter on frost protection alone is worth many times the 
cost of the book. 

HOW ABOUT PACKING? 

This guide tells how to make all the packs that com- 
monly are found on the markets. Are you interested in 
box packing? This book gives special attention to the 
standard box packs, with complete directions for begin- 
ners. The volume is complete and right up to the minute 
on all the best methods of fruit-growing. 

ORGANIZE A CO-OPERATIVE ASSOCIATION. 

Co-operation is essential for the best marketing. This 
guide tells of and gives the constitutions of the best co- 
operative associations in the country. Study this book, 
organize a co-operative association, and make more money 
from your fruit. 

The price of this volume, with the fine cloth binding, 
is one dollar, postpaid. Send for it today. Address 

FRUIT-GROWER AND FARMER, St. Joseph, Mo. 



FRUIT-GROWER 



The editors of The Fruit-Grower and Farmer are 
practical farmers, and their principal aim in conducting 
the paper is to tell of the most profitable farm practices 
— the kinds that make farmers the most money. There 
is no space for impractical theory. Greater production 
and better selling methods are the two things most needed 
in American farming, for both will increase the profits. 
And increased profits are needed to buy the home com- 
forts that are needed to make life really worth while. 

Did your crops satisfy you last year? Were the 
money returns satisfactory? This paper will help you 
in using the best methods of farm practice, and help 
you in making more money. Don't you want this money 
during the coming year? 

MORE THAN ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND 

Farmers are now taking and paying for this paper. This 
list is now increasing rapidly, and every edition is larger 
than the one before. THE REASON IS THAT THE 
PAPER SHOWS HOW TO INCREASE THE CASH 
RETURNS FROM THE SOIL. 

There is much lost motion between farmers and con- 
sumers. It costs too much to market the food produced 
in the United States, under average conditions. Some 
farmers and groups of farmers, however, are using meth- 
ods that are eliminating the heavy selling cost of farm 
produce. Much space in the paper is taken up with tell- 
ing of marketing methods which have been successful. 
These stories are obtained by members of the editorial 
department who travel from the Atlantic to the Pacific 
to get them. 

ELIMINATE THE MIDDLEMEN 

by adopting the methods which have successfully been 
used. Learn of these methods in The Fruit-Grower and 
Farmer. 



AND FARMER 



The magazine is large, the editions frequently con- 
taining one hundred pages. It is printed on a high enamel 
paper, and the many cuts that are used show up in fine 
shape. It is a monthly magazine, and the numbers are 
mailed on the first of the month. IT IS A PAPER YOU 
NEED, FOR IT WILL AID YOU IN INCREASING 




HOME OF THE FRUIT-GROWER AND FARMER. 



THE MONEY RETURNS FROM YOUR PLACE. 
Send in your subscription or a request for a sample copy 
today. A sample copy is free. The subscription price is 
one dollar for one year or two dollars for three years. 
Address 

FRUIT-GROWER AND FARMER 

ST. JOSEPH, MISSOURI 



Best Books on Farming 



Here is a list of the leading 1 books on the topics that are given. 
In order to become a leader in the branch of farming you are 
handling, it will be necessary to get all the information along 
your line that is possible. Study this list; there are books here 
that will help you make more money. 



GENERAL AGRICULTURE 
American Cattle Doctor, by George H. Ladd, V. S., 367 pages $2.00 

First Principles cf Soil Fertility, by Alfred Vivian, 265 pages $1.00 

There is no subject of more vital importance to the farmer 
than that of the best method of maintaining the fertility of the 
soil In this book the author has given the gist of the subject in 
plain language, practically devoid of technical and scientific 
terms. Illustrated. 

Feeding Farm Animals, by Prof. Thomas Shaw, 500 pages $2.00 
This book is intended alike for the student and the farmer. 
His book is unquestionably the most practical work which has 
appeared on the subject of feeding farm animals. Illustrated. 

How to Co-operate, by Herbert Myrick, 350 pages $1.00 

This book tells how to manage a co-operative store, farm or 
factory, co-operative dairying, co-operative farmers' and women's 
exchanges, for both buying and selling. The directions given are 
based upon the actual experience of the successful co-operative 
enterprises in all parts of the United States. The character and 
usefulness of the book commend it to the attention of all men 
and women who desire to better their condition. Illustrated. 

Swine in America, by F. D. Coburn, 650 pages $2.50 

This great book on hog-raising is a guide to every farmer and 
a text-book to every student. Every phase of hog raising is 
considered from a practical standpoint. If you have anything at 
all to do with hogs get this book. 



Best Books on Farming 285 

Meadows and Pastures, by Joseph E. Wing .$1.50 

The Book of Alfalfa, by F. D. Coburn, 336 pages 2.00 

Clovers and How to Grow Them, by Thomas Shaw, 337 pages 1.00 
The Landscape Beautiful, by F. A. Waugh, 336 pages 2.00 

He presents a delightful study of the landscape in all its 
phases. All written in a most sympathetic and fascinating style. 

Corn Culture, by Plumb $1.00 

This is the best book ever prepared that treats of corn culture 
from a thoroughly practical application of scientific principles. 
Should be in the library of every corn grower. 

Farm Management, by F. W. Card $2.00 

The Science and Practice of Cheese-Making, by L. L. Van 

Slyke and C. A. Publow, 520 pages $1.75 

Principles and Practice of Poultry Culture, by Robinson.... 2.50 

Farm Poultry, by Watson 1.50 

Making Money on Farm Crops, by Floyd B. Nichols, agricul- 
tural editor of The Fruit-GroWer and Farmer 1.00 

This book consists of 288 pages, and contains 79 illustrations. 
It is printed on a high quality enamel paper, and is bound in 
cloth. This book will show you how to increase your yields and 
eliminate lost motion in cultivating and handling crops. 

Alfalfa in America, by Joseph E. Wing $2.00 

Money in Dairying, by H. B. Gurler 1.00 

Systematic Bookkeeping for Farmers, by Fred M. Baird. ... 1.00 

This book gives a simple and easily learned method of keep- 
ing farm accounts. It should be in the hands of all business 
farmers. 

Weeds and How to Eradicate Them, by Thomas Shaw $0.50 

Fences, Gates and Bridges 50 

Physics of Agriculture, by F. H. King 1.75 

SOILS 

Soils, by C. W. Burkett $1.25 

In this book, the essential facts of soil management are set 
forth in a pleasing and attractive manner. This book ought to 
be in the hands of every farmer in the United States. 



286 Best Books on Farming 

Soil Fertility and Permanent Agriculture, by C. G. Hopkins $2.25 
This is a book that is of great value in the solving of soil 
problems. 

Soils, S. W. Fletcher $2.00 

Soil, The, F. H. King 1.50 

FARM MACHINERY 

Farm Machinery and Farm Motors, by J. B. Davidson and 

L. W. Chase, 520 pages $2.00 

Farm Machinery and Farm Motors is the first American 
book published on the subject of Farm Machinery since that 
written by J. J. Thomas in 1907. Modern farm machinery is 
indispensable in present-day farming and Farm Machinery and 
Farm Motors will fill a much-felt need. Profusely illustrated. 

Power and the Plow, by L. W. Ellis and E. A. Rumley. . . .$1.50 

The first attempt at a complete scientific statement of the 
problems arising from the introduction of mechanical power to 
plowing. How to operate and care for tractors. 

Answers on Automobiles $1.50 

Gives clear, concise and practical information on caring, run- 
ning and repairing. 512 pages with 380 drawings. 

Gasoline Engines on the Farm, by Zeno W. Putman, 556 

pages, 179 illustrations $2.50 

A practical treatise on gasoline and kerosene engines. Tells 

how to run and manage engines — how to apply to all kinds of 

work to best advantage, 

Farm Engines and How to Run Them, by J. H. Stephenson $1.00 
Traction Engine, The, J. H. Maggard 1.00 

FRUIT AND VEGETABLE GROWING 

Bean Culture, by Glenn C. Sevey, B. S., 144 pages ....$0.50 

Celery Culture, by W. R. Beattie, 150 pages $0.50 

A practical guide for beginners and a standard reference of 
great interest to persons already engaged in celery growing. 
Fully illustrated. 

The New Onion Culture, by T. Greiner, 140 pages $0.50 

A new method of growing onions of largest size and yield, 
on less land, than can be raised by the old plan. Illustrated. 



Best Books on Farming 287 

Cabbage, Cauliflower, by C. L. Allen, 126 pages $0.50 

A practical treatise on the various types and varieties of cab- 
bage, cauliflower, broccoli, sprouts-, kale, collards and kohl-rabi. 

American Fruit Culturist, by John J. Thomas, 75S pages. . .$2.50 

Containing- practical directions for the propagation and cul- 
ture of all the fruits adapted to the United States. Richly illus- 
trated by nearly 300 engravings. 

Foundations of American Grape Culture, by T. V. Munson, 

250 pages $2.00 

Fruit Harvesting, Storing, Marketing, by F. A. Waugh, 232 

pages 1.00 

Small Fruit Culturist, by Andrew S. Fuller, 298 pages 1.00 

The book covers the whole ground of propagating small fruit, 
their culture, varieties, packing for market, etc. It's thoroughly 
illustrated. 

Grape Culturist, 282 pages, by S. A. Fuller $1.50 

This is one of the very best works on the culture of the 
hardy grapes, with full directions for all departments of propa- 
gation, culture, etc. With 150 excellent engravings illustrating 
planting, training and grafting. 

Tomato Culture, by Will W. Tracy, 150 pages $0.50 

Asparagus, by F. M. Hexamer, 174 pages $0.50 

Vegetable Gardening, by R. L. Watts, 550 pages 1.75 

Principles of Fruit-Growing, by L. H. Bailey 1.50 

A complete treatise on the practice of fruit-growing, com- 
prising an inventory of fruits and a full discussion of the tillage, 
planting and fertilizing fruit lands and the protection of fruit 
plants from disease, frosts and other dangers. 

The Fruit-Growers Guide- Book, by E. H. Favor, horticul- 
tural editor of The Fruit-Grower and Farmer $1.00 

This book is the most practical, up-to-the-minute work ever 
written on fruit raising for the commercial orchardist, the home 
gardener and the student. It is an up-to-date, modern book for 
the man with thousands of trees, as well as for the man with 
a few trees in his dooryard. It contains information that can 
be applied every day in the work of handling a fruit planta- 
tion. It is bound in a handsome cloth binding. 



288 Best Books on Farming 

The Nursery Book, by L. H. Bailey $1.50 

A complete guide to the multiplication of plants. A standard 
work for nurserymen. Revised and enlarged. 

The Potato, Grubb and Guilford $2.00 

Fruit-Growing in Arid Regions, Paddock and Whipple $1.50 

INSECTS 

Economic Entomology, by J. B. Smith $2.50 

Insects and Insecticides, by C. W. Weed 1.50 

Insects Injurious to Fruits, by W. Saunders 2.00 

Insects Injurious to Staple Crops, by E. D. Sanderson 1.50 

Injurious Insects, O'Kanc 2.00 



All of the listed books will be sent postpaid on receipt of the 
price. And no matter whether a book is listed here or not, we 
can get it for you at the publisher's price. Tell us your book 
wants. Address 

FRUIT-GROWER AND FARMER 

ST. JOSEPH, MISSOURI 



WAR 11 1913 




LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 



0002bfll33fc,D 



i 



